Xylocopa

Life-forms

Superregnum: Eukaryota
Regnum: Animalia
Subregnum: Eumetazoa
Cladus: Bilateria
Cladus: Nephrozoa
Cladus: Protostomia
Cladus: Ecdysozoa
Cladus: Panarthropoda
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Hexapoda
Classis: Insecta
Cladus: Dicondylia
Subclassis: Pterygota
Cladus: Metapterygota
Infraclassis: Neoptera
Cladus: Eumetabola
Cladus: Endopterygota
Superordo: Hymenopterida
Ordo: Hymenoptera
Subordo: Apocrita
Superfamilia: Apoidea

Familia: Apidae
Subfamilia: Xylocopinae
Tribus: Xylocopini
Genus: Xylocopa
Subgenus: X. (Alloxylocopa) – X. (Biluna) – X. (Bomboixylocopa) – X. (Cirroxylocopa) – X. (Copoxyla) – X. (Ctenoxylocopa) – X. (Dasyxylocopa) – X. (Diaxylocopa) – X. (Gnathoxylocopa) – X. (Koptortosoma) – X. (Lestis) – X. (Maaiana) – X. (Mesotrichia) – X. (Monoxylocopa) – X. (Neoxylocopa) – X. (Nodula) – X. (Notoxylocopa) – X. (Nyctomelitta) – X. (Platynopoda) – X. (Prosopoxylocopa) – X. (Proxylocopa) – X. (Rhysoxylocopa) – X. (Schonnherria) – X. (Stenoxylocopa) – X. (Xenoxylocopa) – X. (Xylocopa) – X. (Xylocopoda) – X. (Xylocopoides) – X. (Xylocopsis) – X. (Xylomelissa) – X. (Zonohirsuta)

In synonymy: X. (Acroxylocopa) – X. (Afroxylocopa) – X. (Apoxylocopa) – X. (Calloxylocopa) – X. (Cyaneoderes) – X. (Cyphoxylocopa) – X. (Dinoxylocopa) – X. (Eoxylocopa) – X. (Epixylocopa) – X. (Euxylocopa) – X. (Hoplitoxylocopa) – X. (Hoploxylocopa) – X. (Ioxylocopa) – X. (Lieftinckella) – X. (Megaxylocopa) – X. (Mimoxylocopa) – X. (Oxyxylocopa) – X. (Perixylocopa) – X. (Platynopoda) – X. (Xylocospila) – X. (Xylocopspina)
Overview of species (402)

A

X. abbotti – X. abbreviata – X. acutipennis – X. adumbrata – X. adusta – X. aeneipennis – X. aeratus – X. aestuans – X. aethiopica – X. africana – X. albiceps – X. albifrons – X. albinotum – X. alternata – X. alticola – X. amamensis – X. amauroptera – X. amazonica – X. amedaei – X. amethystina – X. andarabana – X. andica – X. angulosa – X. anthophoroides – X. apicalis – X. appendiculata – X. artifex – X. aruana – X. assimilis – X. atamisquensis – X. augusti – X. auripennis – X. aurorea – X. aurulenta –
B

X. bakeriana – X. balteata – X. bambusae – X. bangkaensis – X. barbarae – X. barbatella – X. bariwal – X. basalis – X. bentoni – X. bequaerti – X. bhowara – X. biangulata – X. bicarinata – X. bicristata – X. bigibbosa – X. bilineata – X. bimaculata – X. binongkona – X. bluethgeni – X. bombiformis – X. bomboides – X. bombylans – X. boops – X. bouyssoui – X. brasilianorum – X. braunsi – X. bruesi – X. bryorum – X. buginesica – X. buruana –
C

X. caerulea – X. caffra – X. calcarata – X. calens – X. californica – X. caloptera – X. canaria – X. cantabrita – X. capensis – X. capitata – X. carbonaria – X. caribea – X. caspari – X. caviventris – X. cearensis – X. ceballosi – X. celebensis – X. chapini – X. chinensis – X. chiyakensis – X. chlorina – X. chrysopoda – X. chrysoptera – X. ciliata – X. citrina – X. clarionensis – X. claripennis – X. cloti – X. cockerelli – X. codinai – X. colona – X. columbiensis – X. combinata – X. combusta – X. concolorata – X. conradsiana – X. coracina – X. cornigera – X. coronata – X. cribrata – X. cubaecola – X. cuernosensis – X. cyanea – X. cyanescens –
D

X. dalbertisi – X. dapitanensis – X. darwini – X. dejeanii – X. dibongoana – X. dimidiata – X. disconota – X. distinguenda – X. ditypa – X. diversipes – X. dolosa – X. dormeyeri – X. duala –
E

X. electa – X. elegans – X. erlangeri – X. erythrina – X. escalerai – X. esica – X. euchlora – X. euxantha – X. eximia –
F

X. fabriciana – X. fallax – X. fenestrata – X. fervens – X. fimbriata – X. flavicollis – X. flavifrons – X. flavonigrescens – X. flavorufa – X. forbesii – X. forsiusi – X. fortissima – X. fransseni – X. friesiana – X. frontalis – X. fuliginata – X. fulva – X. funesta – X. fuscata –
G

X. gabonica – X. ganglbaueri – X. gaullei – X. ghilianii – X. gracilis – X. graueri – X. gressitti – X. gribodoi – X. grisescens – X. grossa – X. grubaueri – X. gualanensis – X. guatemalensis – X. guigliae –
H

X. haefligeri – X. haematospila – X. hafizii – X. hellenica – X. hirsutissima – X. hottentotta – X. hyalinipennis –
I

X. ignescens – X. imitator – X. incandescens – X. incerta – X. incompleta – X. inconspicua – X. inconstans – X. inquirenda – X. insola – X. insularis – X. io – X. iranica – X. iridipennis – X. iris – X. isabelleae –
J

X. javana –
K

X. kamerunensis – X. karnyi – X. kerri – X. kuehni –
L

X. lachnea – X. lanata – X. langi – X. lateralis – X. lateritia – X. latipes – X. lautipennis – X. lehmanni – X. lepeletieri – X. leucocephala – X. leucothoracoides – X. levequeae – X. lieftincki – X. lombokensis – X. longespinosa – X. longula – X. loripes – X. lucbanensis – X. lucida – X. lugubris – X. lundqvisti – X. luteola –
M

X. macrops – X. madida – X. madurensis – X. maesoi – X. magnifica – X. maidli – X. maior – X. marginella – X. mastrucata – X. mazarredoi – X. mcgregori – X. mckeani – X. meadewaldoi – X. mendozana – X. merceti – X. metallica – X. mexicanorum – X. meyeri – X. micans – X. micheneri – X. mimetica – X. minor – X. mirabilis – X. mixta – X. modesta – X. mohnikei – X. mongolicus – X. montana – X. mordax – X. morotaiana – X. muscaria – X. myops –
N

X. nasalis – X. nasica – X. nautlana – X. negligenda – X. nigrella – X. nigrescens – X. nigricans – X. nigricaula – X. nigripes – X. nigrita – X. nigrocaerulea – X. nigrocaudata – X. nigrocincta – X. nigroclypeata – X. nigroplagiata – X. nigrotarsata – X. nitidiventris – X. nix – X. nobilis – X. nogueirai – X. nyassica –
O

X. oblonga – X. obscurata – X. obscuritarsis – X. occipitalis – X. ocellaris – X. ocularis – X. ogasawarensis – X. olivacea – X. olivieri – X. ordinaria – X. ornata – X. orthogonaspis – X. orthosiphonis –
P

X. pallidiscopa – X. parviceps – X. parvula – X. perforator – X. perkinsi – X. perpunctata – X. peruana – X. perversa – X. pervirescens – X. phalothorax – X. philippinensis – X. pilosa – X. plagioxantha – X. praeusta – X. prashadi – X. preussi – X. provida – X. proximata – X. przewalskyi – X. pseudoleucothorax – X. pseudoviolacea – X. pubescens – X. pulchra – X. punctifrons – X. punctigena – X. punctilabris – X. pusulata –
R

X. ramakrishnai – X. rejecta – X. remota – X. rogenhoferi – X. rotundiceps – X. rufa – X. ruficeps – X. ruficollis – X. ruficornis – X. rufidorsum – X. rufipes – X. rufitarsis – X. rutilans –
S

X. samarensis – X. sarawatica – X. schoana – X. scioensis – X. senex – X. senior – X. shelfordi – X. sicheli – X. signata – X. similis – X. simillima – X. sinensis – X. smithii – X. sogdiana – X. sonorina – X. somalica – X. sphinx – X. splendidula – X. stadelmanni – X. stanleyi – X. steindachneri – X. strandi – X. subcombusta – X. subcyanea – X. subjuncta – X. subvirescens – X. subvolatilis – X. subzonata – X. sulcatipes – X. sulcifrons – X. suspecta – X. suspiciosa – X. sycophanta –
T

X. tabaniformis – X. tacanensis – X. tambelanensis – X. tanganyikae – X. tayabanica – X. tegulata – X. tenkeana – X. tenuata – X. tenuiscapa – X. teredo – X. tesselata – X. thoracica – X. togoensis – X. torrida – X. tranquebarica – X. tranquebarorum – X. transitoria – X. tricolor – X. trifasciata – X. trochanterica – X. truxali – X. tumida – X. tumorifera – X. turanica –
U

X. uclesiensis – X. unicolor – X. ustulata –
V

X. vachali – X. valga – X. varentzowi – X. varians – X. varipes – X. varipuncta – X. velutina – X. versicolor – X. vestita – X. villosa – X. violacea – X. virginica – X. viridigastra – X. viridis – X. vittata – X. vogtiana – X. volatilis – X. vulpina –
W

X. waterhousei – X. watmoughi – X. wellmani – X. wilmattae –
X

X. xanti –
Y

X. yunnanensis –
Z

X. zonata

[source Catalogue of Life: 2012 Annual Checklist, plus (1) X. atamisquensis
]
Name

Xylocopa Latreille, 1802

Xylocopa valga, Biology Stamps

References

Hurd, P.D. & Moure, J.S.. 1963. A classification of the large carpenter bees (Xylocopini) (Hymenoptera: Apoidea). University of California Publications in Entomology. 29:1-365.
Latreille, P.A. 1802. Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière des crustacés et des insectes. Ouvrage faisant suite à l’histoire naturelle générale et particulière, composée par Leclerc de Buffon, et rédigée par C.S. Sonnini, membre de plusieurs sociétés savantes. Familles naturelles des genres. Tome troisième. F. Dufart, Paris, xii + pp. 13–467 + [1 (errata)]. BHL Reference page.
Michener, C.D. 2007: The Bees of the World. 2nd Edition. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A. 953 pp.
Minckley, R.L.. 1998: A cladistic analysis and classification of the subgenera and genera of the Large Carpenter Bees, Tribe Xylocopini (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Scientific Papers of the Natural History Museum of the University of Kansas, 9: 1–47.

Additional references

Eardley, C. 1983. A taxonomic revision of the genus Xylocopa Latreille (Hymenoptera: Anthophoridae) in southern Africa. Entomological Memoir, Department of Agriculture, Republic of South Africa No. 58: 1-67.
Engel, M.S., Alqarni, A.S., Shebl, M.A., Iqbal, J. & Hinojosa-Diaz, I.A. 2017. A new species of the carpenter bee genus Xylocopa from the Sarawat Mountains in southwestern Saudi Arabia (Hymenoptera, Apidae). ZooKeys 716: 29—41. DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.716.21150. Reference page.
Gerling, D.H., H.W. Velthuis & A. Hefetz. 1989: Bionomics of the large carpenter bees of the genus Xylocopa. Annual Review of Entomology, 34: 163–190.
Friese, H. 1903. Neue arten der Bienengattung Xylocopa Latr. aus der Neotropischen und Orientalischen region (Hym.). Zeitschrift für Systematische Hymenopterologie und Dipterologie, 3: 202–208.
Hannan, M.A.; Alqarni, A.S.; Owayss, A.A.; Engel, M.S. 2012: The large carpenter bees of central Saudi Arabia, with notes on the biology of Xylocopa sulcatipes Maa (Hymenoptera, Apidae, Xylocopinae). ZooKeys, 201: 1–14. DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.201.3246
Lucia, M.; Alvarez, L.J.; Abrahamovich, A.H. 2014: Large carpenter bees in Argentina: systematics and notes on the biology of Xylocopa subgenus Neoxylocopa (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Zootaxa 3754(3): 201–238. DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3754.3.1 Reference page.
Hurd, P.D. 1978. An Annotated Catalog of the Carpenter Bees (Genus: Xylocopa Latreille) of the Western Hemisphere (Hymenoptera: Anthophoridae). Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press 106 pp.
Lucia, M. & Gonzalez, V.H. 2017. New species and designation of primary types in Neotropical carpenter bees of the genus Xylocopa Latreille (Hymenoptera, Apidae). Journal of Hymenoptera Research 61: 31–48. DOI: 10.3897/jhr.61.20345 Reference page.
Lucia, M., Gonzalez, V.H. & Abrahamovich, A.H. 2015. Systematics and biology of Xylocopa subgenus Schonnherria (Hymenoptera, Apidae) in Argentina. ZooKeys 543: 129–167. DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.543.6300 Full article Reference page.
Mawdsley, J.R. 2017. Taxonomy of the African large carpenter bees of the genus Xylocopa Latreille, 1802, subgenus Xenoxylocopa Hurd & Moure, 1963 (Hymenoptera, Apidae). ZooKeys 655: 131—139. DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.655.11187. Reference page.

Vernacular names
English: Carpenter Bees
日本語: クマバチ属

Carpenter bees are species in the genus Xylocopa of the subfamily Xylocopinae. The genus includes some 500 bees in 31 subgenera.[1] The common name "carpenter bee" derives from their nesting behavior; nearly all species burrow into hard plant material such as dead wood or bamboo. The main exceptions are species in the subgenus Proxylocopa; they dig nesting tunnels in suitable soil.

Etymology

The French entomologist Pierre André Latreille described the genus in 1802. He derived the name from the Ancient Greek xylokopos/ξυλοκὀπος "wood-cutter".[2]
Characteristics

Many species in this enormous genus are difficult to tell apart; most species are all black, or primarily black with some yellow or white pubescence. Some differ only in subtle morphological features, such as details of the male genitalia. Males of some species differ confusingly from the females, being covered in greenish-yellow fur. The confusion of species arises particularly in the common names; in India, for example, the common name for any all-black species of Xylocopa is bhanvra (or bhomora - ভোমোৰা - in Assamese), and reports and sightings of bhanvra or bhomora are commonly misattributed to a European species, Xylocopa violacea; however, this species is found only in the northern regions of Jammu and Kashmir and Punjab, and most reports of bhanvra, especially elsewhere in India, refer to any of roughly 15 other common black Xylocopa species in the region, such as X. nasalis, X. tenuiscapa, or X. tranquebarorum.[3]
Xylocopa Latreille.jpg

Non-professionals commonly confuse carpenter bees with bumblebees;[4] the simplest rule of thumb for telling them apart is that most carpenter bees have a shiny abdomen, whereas bumblebee abdomens are completely covered with dense hair. Males of some species of carpenter bees have a white or yellow face, unlike bumblebees, while females lack the bare corbicula of bumblebees; the hind leg is entirely hairy.

The wing venation is characteristic; the marginal cell in the front wing is narrow and elongated, and its apex bends away from the costa. The front wing has small stigma. When closed, the bee's short mandibles conceal the labrum. The clypeus is flat.[4] Males of many species have much larger eyes than the females, which relates to their mating behavior.

In the United States, two eastern species, Xylocopa virginica and X. micans, occur. Three more species are primarily western in distribution, X. sonorina, X. tabaniformis orpifex, and X. californica. X. virginica is by far the more widely distributed species.[5]
Xylocopa caerulea, the blue carpenter bee, engaged in nectar robbing
Ecological significance

In several species, the females live alongside their own daughters or sisters, creating a small social group. They use wood bits to form partitions between the cells in the nest. A few species bore holes in wood dwellings. Since the tunnels are near the surface, structural damage is generally minor or superficial.[6] However, carpenter bee nests are attractive to woodpeckers, which may do further damage by drilling into the wood to feed on the bees or larvae.[7]

Carpenter bees have short mouthparts and are important pollinators on some open-faced or shallow flowers; for some they even are obligate pollinators, for example the maypop (Passiflora incarnata) and Orphium, which are not pollinated by any other insects. They also are important pollinators of flowers with various forms of lids, such as Salvia species and some members of the Fabaceae. However many carpenter bees "rob" nectar by slitting the sides of flowers with deep corollae. Xylocopa virginica is one example of a species with such nectar robbing behavior. With their short labia the bees cannot reach the nectar without piercing the long-tubed flowers; they miss contact with the anthers and perform no pollination. In some plants, this reduces fruit and seed production, while others have developed defence mechanisms against nectar robbing. When foraging for pollen from some species with tubular flowers however, the same species of carpenter bees still achieve pollination, if the anthers and stigmata are exposed together.[8]
File:Carpenter bee on Abelia flowers.webmPlay media
A carpenter bee on abelia flowers, Toyko, Japan

Many Old World carpenter bees have a special pouch-like structure on the inside of their first metasomal tergite called the acarinarium where certain mites (Dinogamasus species) reside as commensals. The exact nature of the relationship is not fully understood, though in other bees that carry mites, they are beneficial, feeding either on fungi in the nest, or on other harmful mites.

Behavior
Xylocopa virginica in the United States
Cross-section of the brood chambers of X. violacea, illustrated by Theo Carreras. Tunnels are excavated in wooden posts, divided into chambers which are provisioned, and an egg is laid in each. Each cell initially contains a mass of pollen with the egg, on which the grub will feed. The pupa (lower left) is seen from back and front.[9]

Carpenter bees are traditionally considered solitary bees, though some species have simple social nests in which mothers and daughters may cohabit. Examples of this type of social nesting can be seen in the species Xylocopa sulcatipes[10] and Xylocopa nasalis[11]. When females cohabit, a division of labor between them occurs sometimes. In this type of nesting, multiple females either share in the foraging and nest laying, or one female does all the foraging and nest laying, while the other females guard.[10]

Solitary species differ from social species. Solitary bees tend to be gregarious and often several nests of solitary bees are near each other. In solitary nesting, the founding bee forages, builds cells, lays the eggs, and guards. Normally, only one generation of bees live in the nest.[10] Xylocopa pubescens is one carpenter bee species that can have both social and solitary nests.[12]

Carpenter bees make nests by tunneling into wood, bamboo, and similar hard plant material such as peduncles, usually dead. They vibrate their bodies as they rasp their mandibles against hard wood, each nest having a single entrance which may have many adjacent tunnels. As a subfamily, they nest in a wide range of host plants, but any one species may show definite adaptations or preferences for particular groups of plants. The entrance is often a perfectly circular hole measuring about 16 mm (0.63 in) on the underside of a beam, bench, or tree limb. Carpenter bees do not eat wood. They discard the bits of wood, or reuse particles to build partitions between cells. The tunnel functions as a nursery for brood and storage for the pollen/nectar upon which the brood subsists. The provision masses of some species are among the most complex in shape of any group of bees; whereas most bees fill their brood cells with a soupy mass and others form simple spheroidal pollen masses, Xylocopa species form elongated and carefully sculpted masses that have several projections which keep the bulk of the mass from coming into contact with the cell walls, sometimes resembling an irregular caltrop. The eggs are very large relative to the size of the female, and are some of the largest eggs among all insects.[13] Carpenter bees can be timber pests, and cause substantial damage to wood if infestations go undetected for several years.[14]

Two very different mating systems appear to be common in carpenter bees, and often this can be determined simply by examining specimens of the males of any given species. Species in which the males have large eyes are characterized by a mating system where the males either search for females by patrolling, or by hovering and waiting for passing females, which they then pursue. In the other mating system, the males often have very small heads, but a large, hypertrophied glandular reservoir in the mesosoma releases pheromones into the airstream behind the male while it flies or hovers. The pheromone advertises the presence of the male to females.[15]

Male bees often are seen hovering near nests, and will approach nearby animals. However, males are harmless, since they do not have a stinger.[16] Female carpenter bees are capable of stinging, but they are docile and rarely sting unless caught in the hand or otherwise directly provoked.[5]
Natural predators

Woodpeckers eat carpenter bees, as do various species of birds, such as shrikes and bee-eaters as well as some mammals such as ratels. Other predators include large mantises and predatory flies, particularly large robber-flies of the family Asilidae. Woodpeckers are attracted to the noise of the bee larvae and drill holes along the tunnels to feed on them.[17]

Apart from outright predators, parasitoidal species of bee flies (e.g. Xenox) lay eggs in the entrance to the bee’s nest and the fly maggots live off the bee larvae.
Species

Xylocopa abbotti (Cockerell, 1909)
Xylocopa abbreviata Hurd & Moure, 1963
Xylocopa acutipennis Smith, 1854
Xylocopa adumbrata Lieftinck, 1957
Xylocopa adusta Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa aeneipennis (DeGeer, 1773)
Xylocopa aerata (Smith, 1851)
Xylocopa aestuans (Linnaeus, 1758)
Xylocopa aethiopica Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa africana (Fabricius, 1781)
Xylocopa albiceps Fabricius, 1804
Xylocopa albifrons Lepeletier, 1841
Xylocopa albinotum Matsumura, 1926
Xylocopa alternata Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa alticola (Cockerell, 1919)
Xylocopa amamensis Sonan, 1934
Xylocopa amauroptera Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa amazonica Enderlein, 1913
Xylocopa amedaei Lepeletier, 1841
Xylocopa amethystina (Fabricius, 1793)
Xylocopa andarabana Hedicke, 1938
Xylocopa andica Enderlein, 1913
Xylocopa angulosa Maa, 1954
Xylocopa anthophoroides Smith, 1874
Xylocopa apicalis Smith, 1854
Xylocopa appendiculata Smith, 1852
Xylocopa artifex Smith, 1874
Xylocopa aruana Ritsema, 1876
Xylocopa assimilis Ritsema, 1880
Xylocopa augusti Lepeletier, 1841
Xylocopa auripennis Lepeletier, 1841
Xylocopa aurorea Friese, 1922
Xylocopa aurulenta (Fabricius, 1804)
Xylocopa bakeriana (Cockerell, 1914)
Xylocopa balteata Maa, 1943
Xylocopa bambusae Schrottky, 1902
Xylocopa bangkaensis Friese, 1903
Xylocopa barbatella Cockerell, 1931
Xylocopa bariwal Maidl, 1912
Xylocopa basalis Smith, 1854
Xylocopa bentoni Cockerell, 1919
Xylocopa bequaerti (Cockerell, 1930)
Xylocopa bhowara Maa, 1938
Xylocopa biangulata Vachal, 1899
Xylocopa bicarinata Alfken, 1932
Xylocopa bicristata Maa, 1954
Xylocopa bilineata Friese, 1914
Xylocopa bimaculata Friese, 1903
Xylocopa binongkona van der Vecht, 1953
Xylocopa bluethgeni Dusmet y Alonso, 1924
Xylocopa bombiformis Smith, 1874
Xylocopa bomboides Smith, 1879
Xylocopa bombylans (Fabricius, 1775)
Xylocopa boops Maidl, 1912
Xylocopa bouyssoui Vachal, 1898
Xylocopa brasilianorum (Linnaeus, 1767)
Xylocopa braunsi Dusmet y Alonso, 1924
Xylocopa bruesi Cockerell, 1914
Xylocopa bryorum (Fabricius, 1775)
Xylocopa buginesica Vecht, 1953
Xylocopa buruana Lieftinck, 1956
Xylocopa caerulea (Fabricius, 1804)
Xylocopa caffra (Linnaeus, 1767)
Xylocopa calcarata (LeVeque, 1928)
Xylocopa calens Lepeletier, 1841
Xylocopa californica Cresson, 1864
Xylocopa caloptera Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa canaria (Cockerell & LeVeque, 1925)
Xylocopa cantabrita Lepeletier, 1841
Xylocopa capensis Spinola, 1838
Xylocopa capitata Smith, 1854
Xylocopa carbonaria Smith, 1854
Xylocopa caribea Lepeletier, 1841
Xylocopa caspari van der Vecht, 1953
Xylocopa caviventris Maidl, 1912
Xylocopa cearensis Ducke, 1911
Xylocopa ceballosi Dusmet y Alonso, 1924
Xylocopa celebensis (Gribodo, 1894)
Xylocopa chapini (LeVeque, 1928)
Xylocopa chinensis Friese, 1911
Xylocopa chiyakensis (Cockerell, 1908)
Xylocopa chlorina (Cockerell, 1915)
Xylocopa chrysopoda Schrottky, 1902
Xylocopa chrysoptera Latreille, 1809
Xylocopa ciliata Burmeister, 1876
Xylocopa citrina Friese, 1909
Xylocopa clarionensis Hurd, 1958
Xylocopa claripennis Friese, 1922
Xylocopa cloti Vachal, 1898
Xylocopa cockerelli Maa, 1943
Xylocopa codinai Dusmet y Alonso, 1924
Xylocopa colona Lepeletier, 1841
Xylocopa columbiensis Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa combinata Ritsema, 1876
Xylocopa combusta Smith, 1854
Xylocopa concolorata Maa, 1938
Xylocopa conradsiana Friese, 1911
Xylocopa coracina van der Vecht, 1953
Xylocopa cornigera Friese, 1909
Xylocopa coronata Smith, 1861
Xylocopa cribrata Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa cubaecola Lucas, 1857
Xylocopa cuernosensis (Cockerell, 1915)
Xylocopa cyanea Smith, 1874
Xylocopa cyanescens Brullé, 1832
Xylocopa dalbertisi Lieftinck, 1957
Xylocopa dapitanensis (Cockerell, 1915)
Xylocopa darwini Cockerell, 1926
Xylocopa dejeanii Lepeletier, 1841
Xylocopa dibongoana Hedicke, 1923
Xylocopa dimidiata Latreille, 1809
Xylocopa disconota Friese, 1914
Xylocopa distinguenda Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa ditypa Vachal, 1898
Xylocopa diversipes Smith, 1861
Xylocopa dolosa Vachal, 1899
Xylocopa dormeyeri (Enderlein, 1909)
Xylocopa duala Strand, 1921
Xylocopa electa Smith, 1874
Xylocopa elegans Hurd & Moure, 1963
Xylocopa erlangeri Enderlein, 1903
Xylocopa erythrina Gribodo, 1894
Xylocopa escalerai Dusmet y Alonso, 1924
Xylocopa esica Cameron, 1902
Xylocopa euchlora Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa euxantha Cockerell, 1933
Xylocopa eximia Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa fabriciana Moure, 1960
Xylocopa fallax Maidl, 1912
Xylocopa fenestrata (Fabricius, 1798)
Xylocopa fervens Lepeletier, 1841
Xylocopa fimbriata Fabricius, 1804
Xylocopa flavicollis (DeGeer, 1778)
Xylocopa flavifrons Matsumura, 1912
Xylocopa flavonigrescens Smith, 1854
Xylocopa flavorufa (DeGeer, 1778)
Xylocopa forbesii W. F. Kirby, 1883
Xylocopa forsiusi Dusmet y Alonso, 1924
Xylocopa fortissima Cockerell, 1930
Xylocopa fransseni van der Vecht, 1953
Xylocopa friesiana Maa, 1939
Xylocopa frontalis (Olivier, 1789)
Xylocopa fuliginata Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa fulva Friese, 1922
Xylocopa funesta Maidl, 1912
Xylocopa fuscata Smith, 1854
Xylocopa gabonica (Gribodo, 1894)
Xylocopa ganglbaueri Maidl, 1912
Xylocopa gaullei Vachal, 1898
Xylocopa ghilianii Gribodo, 1891
Xylocopa gracilis Dusmet y Alonso, 1923
Xylocopa graueri Maidl, 1912
Xylocopa gressitti Lieftinck, 1957
Xylocopa gribodoi Magretti, 1892
Xylocopa grisescens Lepeletier, 1841
Xylocopa grossa (Drury, 1770)
Xylocopa grubaueri Friese, 1903
Xylocopa gualanensis Cockerell, 1912
Xylocopa guatemalensis Cockerell, 1912
Xylocopa guigliae Lieftinck, 1957
Xylocopa haefligeri Friese, 1909
Xylocopa haematospila Moure, 1951
Xylocopa hafizii Maa, 1938
Xylocopa hellenica Spinola, 1843
Xylocopa hirsutissima Maidl, 1912
Xylocopa hottentotta Smith, 1854
Xylocopa hyalinipennis Friese, 1922
Xylocopa ignescens (LeVeque, 1928)
Xylocopa imitator Smith, 1854
Xylocopa incandescens (Cockerell, 1932)
Xylocopa incerta Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa incompleta Ritsema, 1880
Xylocopa inconspicua Maa, 1937
Xylocopa inconstans Smith, 1874
Xylocopa inquirenda Vachal, 1899
Xylocopa insola Vachal, 1910
Xylocopa insularis Smith, 1857
Xylocopa io Vachal, 1898
Xylocopa iranica Maa, 1954
Xylocopa iridipennis Lepeletier, 1841
Xylocopa iris (Christ, 1791)
Xylocopa isabelleae Hurd, 1959
Xylocopa javana Friese, 1914
Xylocopa kamerunensis Vachal, 1899
Xylocopa karnyi Maidl, 1912
Xylocopa kerri (Cockerell, 1929)
Xylocopa kuehni Friese, 1903
Xylocopa lachnea Moure, 1951
Xylocopa lanata Smith, 1854
Xylocopa langi (LeVeque, 1928)
Xylocopa lateralis Say, 1837
Xylocopa lateritia Smith, 1854
Xylocopa laticeps
Xylocopa latipes (Drury, 1773)
Xylocopa lautipennis (Cockerell, 1933)
Xylocopa lehmanni Friese, 1903
Xylocopa lepeletieri Enderlein, 1903
Xylocopa leucocephala Ritsema, 1876
Xylocopa leucothoracoides Maidl, 1912
Xylocopa levequeae Maa, 1943
Xylocopa lieftincki Leys, 2000
Xylocopa lombokensis Maidl, 1912
Xylocopa longespinosa Enderlein, 1903
Xylocopa longula Friese, 1922
Xylocopa loripes Smith, 1874
Xylocopa lucbanensis (Cockerell, 1927)
Xylocopa lucida Smith, 1874
Xylocopa lugubris Gerstäcker, 1857
Xylocopa lundqvisti Lieftinck, 1957
Xylocopa luteola Lepeletier, 1841
Xylocopa macrops Lepeletier, 1841
Xylocopa madida Friese, 1925
Xylocopa madurensis Friese, 1913
Xylocopa maesoi Dusmet y Alonso, 1924
Xylocopa magnifica (Cockerell, 1929)
Xylocopa maidli Maa, 1940
Xylocopa maior Maidl, 1912
Xylocopa marginella Lepeletier, 1841
Xylocopa mastrucata Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa mazarredoi Dusmet y Alonso, 1924
Xylocopa mcgregori Cockerell, 1920
Xylocopa mckeani (Cockerell, 1929)
Xylocopa meadewaldoi Hurd, 1959
Xylocopa mendozana Enderlein, 1913
Xylocopa merceti Dusmet y Alonso, 1924
Xylocopa metallica Smith, 1874
Xylocopa mexicanorum Cockerell, 1912
Xylocopa meyeri Dusmet y Alonso, 1924
Xylocopa micans Lepeletier, 1841
Xylocopa micheneri Hurd, 1978
Xylocopa mimetica Cockerell, 1915
Xylocopa minor Maidl, 1912
Xylocopa mirabilis Hurd & Moure, 1963
Xylocopa mixta Radoszkowski, 1881
Xylocopa modesta Smith, 1854
Xylocopa mohnikei Cockerell, 1907
Xylocopa mongolicus (Wu, 1983)
Xylocopa montana Enderlein, 1903
Xylocopa mordax Smith, 1874
Xylocopa morotaiana Lieftinck, 1956
Xylocopa muscaria (Fabricius, 1775)
Xylocopa myops Ritsema, 1876
Xylocopa nasalis Westwood, 1842
Xylocopa nasica Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa nautlana Cockerell, 1904
Xylocopa negligenda Maa, 1939
Xylocopa nigrella Hurd, 1959
Xylocopa nigrescens Friese, 1901
Xylocopa nigricans Vachal, 1910
Xylocopa nigricaula (LeVeque, 1928)
Xylocopa nigripes Friese, 1915
Xylocopa nigrita (Fabricius, 1775)
Xylocopa nigrocaerulea Smith, 1874
Xylocopa nigrocaudata Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa nigrocincta Smith, 1854
Xylocopa nigroclypeata Rayment, 1935
Xylocopa nigroplagiata Ritsema, 1876
Xylocopa nigrotarsata Maa, 1938
Xylocopa nitidiventris Smith, 1878
Xylocopa nix (Maa, 1954)
Xylocopa nobilis Smith, 1859
Xylocopa nogueirai Hurd & Moure, 1960
Xylocopa nyassica Enderlein, 1903
Xylocopa oblonga Smith, 1874
Xylocopa obscurata Smith, 1854
Xylocopa obscuritarsis Friese, 1922
Xylocopa occipitalis Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa ocellaris Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa ocularis Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa ogasawarensis Matsumura, 1932
Xylocopa olivacea (Fabricius, 1778)
Xylocopa olivieri Lepeletier, 1841
Xylocopa ordinaria Smith, 1874
Xylocopa ornata Smith, 1874
Xylocopa orthogonaspis Moure, 2003
Xylocopa orthosiphonis (Cockerell, 1908)
Xylocopa pallidiscopa Hurd, 1961
Xylocopa parviceps Morawitz, 1895
Xylocopa parvula Rayment, 1935
Xylocopa perforator Smith, 1861
Xylocopa perkinsi Cameron, 1901
Xylocopa perpunctata (LeVeque, 1928)
Xylocopa peruana Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa perversa Wiedemann, 1824
Xylocopa pervirescens Cockerell, 1931
Xylocopa phalothorax Lepeletier, 1841
Xylocopa philippinensis Smith, 1854
Xylocopa pilosa Friese, 1922
Xylocopa plagioxantha Lieftinck, 1964
Xylocopa praeusta Smith, 1854
Xylocopa prashadi Maa, 1938
Xylocopa preussi Enderlein, 1903
Xylocopa provida Smith, 1863
Xylocopa proximata Maa, 1938
Xylocopa przewalskyi Morawitz, 1886
Xylocopa pseudoleucothorax Maidl, 1912
Xylocopa pseudoviolacea Popov, 1947
Xylocopa pubescens Spinola, 1838
Xylocopa pulchra Smith, 1874
Xylocopa punctifrons Cockerell, 1917
Xylocopa punctigena Maa, 1938
Xylocopa punctilabris Morawitz, 1894
Xylocopa pusulata Vachal, 1910
Xylocopa ramakrishnai Maa, 1938
Xylocopa rejecta Vachal, 1910
Xylocopa remota Maa, 1938
Xylocopa rogenhoferi Friese, 1900
Xylocopa rotundiceps Smith, 1874
Xylocopa rufa Friese, 1901
Xylocopa ruficeps Friese, 1910
Xylocopa ruficollis Hurd & Moure, 1963
Xylocopa ruficornis Fabricius, 1804
Xylocopa rufidorsum Enderlein, 1913
Xylocopa rufipes Smith, 1852
Xylocopa rufitarsis Lepeletier, 1841
Xylocopa rutilans Lieftinck, 1957
Xylocopa samarensis (Cockerell & LeVeque, 1925)
Xylocopa sarawatica Engel, 2017[18]
Xylocopa schoana Enderlein, 1903
Xylocopa scioensis Gribodo, 1884
Xylocopa senex Friese, 1909
Xylocopa senior Vachal, 1899
Xylocopa shelfordi Cameron, 1902
Xylocopa sicheli Vachal, 1898
Xylocopa signata Morawitz, 1875
Xylocopa similis Smith, 1874
Xylocopa simillima Smith, 1854
Xylocopa sinensis (Wu, 1983)
Xylocopa sinensis Smith, 1854
Xylocopa smithii Ritsema, 1876
Xylocopa sogdiana Popov & Ponomareva, 1961
Xylocopa somalica Magretti, 1895
Xylocopa sonorina Smith, 1874
Xylocopa sphinx Vachal, 1899
Xylocopa splendidula Lepeletier, 1841
Xylocopa stadelmanni Vachal, 1899
Xylocopa stanleyi (LeVeque, 1928)
Xylocopa steindachneri Maidl, 1912
Xylocopa strandi Dusmet y Alonso, 1924
Xylocopa subcombusta (LeVeque, 1928)
Xylocopa subcyanea Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa subjuncta Vachal, 1898
Xylocopa subvirescens Cresson, 1879
Xylocopa subvolatilis (Cockerell, 1918)
Xylocopa subzonata Moure, 1949
Xylocopa sulcatipes Maa, 1970
Xylocopa sulcifrons Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa suspecta Moure & Camargo, 1988
Xylocopa suspiciosa Vachal, 1899
Xylocopa sycophanta Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa tabaniformis Smith, 1854
Xylocopa tacanensis Moure, 1949
Xylocopa tambelanensis (Cockerell, 1926)
Xylocopa tanganyikae Strand, 1911
Xylocopa tayabanica Cockerell, 1930
Xylocopa tegulata Friese, 1911
Xylocopa tenkeana Cockerell, 1933
Xylocopa tenuata Smith, 1874
Xylocopa tenuiscapa Westwood, 1840
Xylocopa teredo Guilding, 1825
Xylocopa tesselata Maa, 1970
Xylocopa thoracica Friese, 1903
Xylocopa togoensis Enderlein, 1903
Xylocopa torrida (Westwood, 1838)
Xylocopa tranquebarica (Fabricius, 1804)
Xylocopa tranquebarorum (Swederus, 1787)
Xylocopa transitoria Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa tricolor Ritsema, 1876
Xylocopa trifasciata Gribodo, 1891
Xylocopa trochanterica Vachal, 1910
Xylocopa truxali Hurd & Moure, 1963
Xylocopa tumida Friese, 1903
Xylocopa tumorifera Lieftinck, 1957
Xylocopa turanica Morawitz, 1875
Xylocopa uclesiensis Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa unicolor Smith, 1861
Xylocopa ustulata Smith, 1854
Xylocopa vachali Pérez, 1901
Xylocopa valga Gerstäcker, 1872
Xylocopa varentzowi Morawitz, 1895
Xylocopa varians Smith, 1874
Xylocopa varipes Smith, 1854
Xylocopa velutina Lieftinck, 1957
Xylocopa versicolor Alfken, 1930
Xylocopa vestita Hurd & Moure, 1963
Xylocopa villosa Friese, 1909
Xylocopa violacea (Linnaeus, 1758)
Xylocopa virginica (Linnaeus, 1771)
Xylocopa viridigastra Lepeletier, 1841
Xylocopa viridis Smith, 1854
Xylocopa vittata Enderlein, 1903
Xylocopa vogtiana Enderlein, 1913
Xylocopa volatilis Smith, 1861
Xylocopa vulpina Alfken, 1930
Xylocopa waterhousei Leys, 2000
Xylocopa watmoughi Eardley, 1983
Xylocopa wellmani Cockerell, 1906
Xylocopa wilmattae Cockerell, 1912
Xylocopa xanti Mocsáry, 1883
Xylocopa yunnanensis Wu, 1982
Xylocopa zonata Alfken, 1930

Gallery

Carpenter bees have large compound eyes. Their mandibles, when closed, cover the labrum.
Carpenter bee nest in a tree trunk
File:Xylocopa (Biluna) tranquebarorum flapping.webmPlay media

X. tranquebarorum flight in slow motion

Xylocopa caffra female foraging

References

Minckley, R. L. (1998). "A cladistic analysis and classification of the subgenera and genera of the large carpenter bees, tribe Xylocopini (Hymenoptera: Apidae)". Scientific Papers. Natural History Museum, University of Kansas. 9: 1–47. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.16168. Retrieved 2012-02-19.
Liddell, Henry George and Robert Scott (1980). A Greek-English Lexicon (Abridged ed.). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. p. 472. ISBN 0-19-910207-4.
Gupta, R.K., Yanega, D. 2003. A taxonomic overview of the carpenter bees of the Indian region [Hymenoptera, Apoidea, Apidae, Xylocopinae, Xylocopini, Xylocopa Latreille]. pp. 79-100 in Gupta, R.K. (Ed.) Advancements in Insect Biodiversity. Agrobios, Jodhpur, India.
"Xylocopa Latreille Large Carpenter Bees". Discover Life. Retrieved 19 November 2014. Sourced from Mitchell, T.B. (1962). Bees of the Eastern United States, Volume II. North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station. Tech. Bul. No.152, 557 p.
Yanega, D. "Carpenter Bees, Order Hymenoptera Family Apidae, Genus: Xylocopa". U.C. Riverside Entomology Research Museum. Retrieved 2012-02-19.
Jones, Susan. "Fact Sheet Carpenter Bees". Ohio State University Extension. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
Erler, Emma (January 2, 2018). "Why is a woodpecker knocking on the cedar shingles of my house and how do I make it stop?". NH Extension.
"Large Carpenter Bees as Agricultural Pollinators". www.hindawi.com. Retrieved 2015-10-01.
Marvels of insect life; a popular account of structure and habit, 1916, Edward Step, p. 39
Gerling, Dan; Hurd, Paul David; Hefetz, Abraham (1983). Comparative behavioral biology of two Middle East species of carpenter bees (Xylocopa Latreille)(Hymenoptera: Apoidea). Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology. Smithsonian Institution Press.
D Gerling, H.H.W. Velthuis, A. Hefetz (1989). Bionomics of the Large Carpenter Bees of the Genus: Xylocopa. Annual Review of Entomology. Vol. 34: 163-190. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.en.34.010189.001115.
Gerling, Dan, Paul David Hurd, and Abraham Hefetz. Comparative behavioral biology of two Middle East species of carpenter bees (Xylocopa Latreille)(Hymenoptera: Apoidea). Smithsonian Institution Press, 1983.
Salvatore Vicidomini (February 9, 2005). "Chapter 40 — Largest Eggs". Book of Insect Records. University of Florida.
Robert A. Zabel; Jeffrey J. Morrell (2 December 2012). Wood Microbiology: Decay and Its Prevention. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-323-13946-5.
Minckley, R. L.; Buchmann, S. L.; Wcislo, W. T. (1991). "Bioassay evidence for a sex attractant pheromone in the large carpenter bee, Xylocopa varipuncta (Anthophoridae: Hymenoptera)". Journal of Zoology. 224 (2): 285–291. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1991.tb04805.x.
Potter, M. "Carpenter Bees". University of Kentucky College of Agriculture, Department of Entomology. Retrieved 2012-02-19.
"Cornell Lab of Ornithology". cornell.edu.
Engel, M.S.; Alqarni, A.S.; Shebl, M.A.; Iqbal, J.; Hinojosa-Diaz, I.A. (2017). "A new species of the carpenter bee genus Xylocopa from the Sarawat Mountains in southwestern Saudi Arabia (Hymenoptera: Apidae)". ZooKeys (716): 29–41. doi:10.3897/zookeys.716.21150. PMC 5740427. PMID 29290706.