Saguinus mystax (*)
Superregnum: Eukaryota
Cladus: Unikonta
Cladus: Opisthokonta
Cladus: Holozoa
Regnum: Animalia
Subregnum: Eumetazoa
Cladus: Bilateria
Cladus: Nephrozoa
Superphylum: Deuterostomia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Infraphylum: Gnathostomata
Megaclassis: Osteichthyes
Cladus: Sarcopterygii
Cladus: Rhipidistia
Cladus: Tetrapodomorpha
Cladus: Eotetrapodiformes
Cladus: Elpistostegalia
Superclassis: Tetrapoda
Cladus: Reptiliomorpha
Cladus: Amniota
Cladus: Synapsida
Cladus: Eupelycosauria
Cladus: Sphenacodontia
Cladus: Sphenacodontoidea
Cladus: Therapsida
Cladus: Theriodontia
Subordo: Cynodontia
Infraordo: Eucynodontia
Cladus: Probainognathia
Cladus: Prozostrodontia
Cladus: Mammaliaformes
Classis: Mammalia
Subclassis: Trechnotheria
Infraclassis: Zatheria
Supercohors: Theria
Cohors: Eutheria
Infraclassis: Placentalia
Cladus: Boreoeutheria
Superordo: Euarchontoglires
Ordo: Primates
Subordo: Haplorhini
Infraordo: Simiiformes
Parvordo: Platyrrhini
Familia: Cebidae
Subfamilia: Callithrichinae
Genus: Saguinus
Species: Saguinus niger
Name
Saguinus niger (É. Geoffroy, 1803)
Vernacular names
English: Black Tamarin
עברית: טמרין שחור
português: Sagui-negro
The black tamarin (Saguinus niger) or western black-handed tamarin, is a species of tamarin endemic to Brazil.
Taxonomy
Based on mitochondrial DNA analysis, black tamarins were found to be more closely related to populations on the same side of the Tocantins River than on the other, showing that the river constitutes an effective gene flow barrier.[4] As a consequence of the genetic divergence, as well as minor differences in pelage color, some recent authorities have argued for recognizing the population east of the Tocantins River as S. ursulus (eastern black-handed tamarin), leaving the "true" S. niger for the population west of this river.[5]
The closest living relative of the black tamarin is thought to be the golden-handed tamarin (S. midas).[6]
Description
Black-handed tamarins are among the smallest primates, weighing approximately 500 grams. As with other tamarins, the hind limbs are longer than the forelimbs and the thumbs are not opposable. With the exception of the big toe, there are claws on all fingers and toes, as well as two molars on each side of the jaw. The face of the black tamarin is generally hairless. The fur is blackish-brown with lighter markings on the back, similar to the golden-handed tamarin but without the golden-orange feet and hands of that species.[7]
Distribution and habitat
The geographic range of black-handed tamarins, which are endemic to Pará, Brazil, is limited by the Rio Amazonas (Amazon River) to the North, the Rio Tocantins (Tocantins River) to the East, the Rio Xingu (Xingu River) to the West,[8] and until recently, the Rio Gradaus (Gradaus River) to the South.[5] Photographic evidence of a black-handed tamarin in Confresa, a town in the northeastern region of the state of Mato Grosso, indicates an increase in the species' geographic range to the South.[9]
Some marmosets occupy small areas of forest in the Tapajós and Madeira Basins, but the black-handed tamarin is absent from these regions due to lack of food resources. However, this species is considered to be more tolerant of habitat disturbances than other Callitrichides.[10]
Black-handed tamarins are arboreal primates that prefer semi-deciduous forest for ease of foraging and thick growth as cover from aerial and terrestrial predators.[8] Due to deforestation in eastern Brazil, black-handed tamarins regularly rely on fragmented and disturbed secondary forest habitats.[11] Although much of the forest canopy has been destroyed, and black-handed tamarins have been seen moving through all levels of the forest, they are most active in the lower to middle (5-15m) strata of the forest.[10]
Foraging behavior
The species makes use of both primary and secondary forest during foraging, keeping primarily to the canopy and spending minimal time on the ground.[10] Black-handed tamarins subsist largely on fruit. During the dry season (November through January), when fruit is scarcer, they will also take arthropods such as grasshoppers and crickets, and eat the gum of Parkia pendula, an evergreen tree.[10] Even during the dry season, however, fruit from Tetragastris altissima and Inga alba trees is available. During the wet season, over 90 percent of the diet is fruit from as many as nine different species of trees, including Inga stipularis, Inga edulis, Bagassa guianensis, Pouteria lucuma, Pourouma guianesis, Manilkara bidentata, and Chrysophyllum sp..[12] The seeds of many of these fruits are ingested and defecated. This process plays an important role in the regeneration of forests that are continuously threatened by logging.[13]
Predators
Due to the black-handed tamarin’s small size, they are considered prey by many other animals. Their predators include man, diurnal birds of prey, snakes, and various cat species including margay and ocelot, which are capable arboreal hunters.[14] Because black-handed tamarins have both aerial and terrestrial predators, they utilize any tree or bundled, thick foliage into which they can climb, and they maintain a group sleep system to keep safe while resting at night.[8]
The black-handed tamarin's social structure serves as an important line of defense against their predators. While much of their day is spent foraging, each individual keeps a lookout for predators and uses calls to alert their social unit. Although intimidating displays may be made toward predators or in territorial defense, the black-handed tamarin's primary defense is flight. The group aspect of their social structure is important to survival, as a single black-handed tamarin would not be able to forage and keep watch for predators safely and effectively.[8]
Reproduction
Breeding behavior
Tamarins typically live in extended family groups of 4 to 15 individuals.[15] Although groups of tamarins may have more than one female per group, only one typically breeds (with the exception of Goeldi's marmoset). Dominant female callitrichids suppress the reproductive activity of their daughters and other subordinate females within their family group. Because daughters of dominant females and other females born and remaining in a group tend not to ovulate, when a female becomes sexually mature, there are two options: either find another group or stay in the natal group. In the latter case, the daughter may someday become the dominant female, or she may cease to ovulate. Daughters may compete for the role of dominant female with their siblings. Subordinate members do not generally engage in sexual reproduction.[16]
All adult black-handed tamarin participate in raising and caring for the young, including non-reproductive members of the group (which may number 2-20 members). Group members coordinate and work together to find sufficient food items for infants and juveniles. Unlike many primate groups that provide juveniles with small amounts of food, this species has a cooperative breeding system that shares a substantial portion of food with the juveniles. When group size is large, the breeding male often spends less time attending to his own young because of the universal group effort. When there is sufficient food, or if the dominant female is close to the end of her reproductive cycle, multiple females may be allowed to reproduce in a group.[16]
A number of mating variations have been observed: monogamy, polygyny, polyandry, or polygynandy.[16]
Lifetime reproduction
Ovulation in female tamarins typically occurs between 12 and 17 months of age, whereas in male tamarins, sperm production occurs slightly later at about 13 to 18 months.[16] The birth of infants has been observed in both early January and mid July.[10] Black-handed tamarins (like all other Callitrichids) usually produce fraternal twins, but litters may consist of 2-4 infants. Triplets and quadruplets usually only occur in captivity. The growth of infants is very rapid; infants become independent within five months. Female callitrichids are able to conceive again after 2–4 weeks of giving birth to their previous offspring.[16]
Conservation
The black-handed tamarin is classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN as a result of a 30% decrease in population size over the last 18 years, and is likely to become endangered if conservation measures are not taken. Because the major threat to the species appears to be a loss of suitable habitat, habitat conservation is thought to be key in their survival. The range of the black-handed tamarin is within one of the most densely inhabited areas of Brazil, where logging has removed a significant amount of the original forest, causing a decrease in food availability and refuges from predators.[3] However, black-handed tamarins are adaptable foragers that can make use of primary, secondary and logged forests, which increases the potential available range of habitat.[12] Populations are present in several reserves where logging is prohibited, including Gurupí Biological Reserve, Tapirapé Biological Reserve, and Caxiuanã National Forest.[3] In central-western Brazil, in the southern part of their range, most black-handed tamarins are only able to survive in the remains of forested areas on private properties.[9]
References
Groves, C. P. (2005). Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 135. ISBN 0-801-88221-4. OCLC 62265494.
Rylands, Anthony B.; Mittermeier, Russell A. (2009). "The Diversity of the New World Primates (Platyrrhini): An Annotated Taxonomy". In Garber, Paul A.; Estrada, Alejandro; Bicca-Marques, Julio Cesar; Heymann, Eckhard W.; Strier, Karen B. (eds.). South American Primates: Comparative Perspectives in the Study of Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 23–54. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-78705-3_2. ISBN 978-0-387-78705-3. S2CID 86334670.
Mendes-Oliveira, A.C.; Ravetta, A.L.; Carvalho, A.S.; Fialho, M.S.; Veiga, L.M. (2021). "Saguinus niger". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T160901052A192553958. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T160901052A192553958.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
Vallinoto, Marcelo; Araripe, Juliana; Rego, Péricles S. do; Tagliaro, Claudia H.; Sampaio, Iracilda; Schneider, Horacio (2006). "Tocantins river as an effective barrier to gene flow in Saguinus niger populations". Genetics and Molecular Biology. 29 (2): 215–219. doi:10.1590/S1415-47572006000200005.
Gregorin, R.; De Vivo, M. (2013). "Revalidation of Saguinus ursula Hoffmannsegg (Primates: Cebidae: Callitrichinae)". Zootaxa. 3721 (2): 172–182. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3721.2.4. PMID 26120667.
Tagliaro, Claudia Helena; Schneider, Horacio; Sampaio, Iracilda; Schneider, Maria Paula Cruz; Vallinoto, Marcelo; Stanhope, Michael (March 2005). "Molecular phylogeny of the genus Saguinus (Platyrrhini, Primates) based on the ND1 mitochondrial gene and implications for conservation". Genetics and Molecular Biology. 28 (1): 46–53. doi:10.1590/s1415-47572005000100009.
Nowak, R.M. (1999). Walker's Mammals of the World, Vol. 1. JHU Press.
Hershkovitz, Philip (1977). Living New World Monkeys (Playyrrhini). Vol. 1. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226327884.[page needed]
Garbino, Guilherme S. T.; Semedo, Thiago B. F.; Pansonato, André. "Notes on the western black-handed tamarin, Saguinus niger (É. Geoffroy, 1803) (Primates) from an Amazonia-Cerrado ecotone in central-western Brazil: new data on its southern limits". Mastozoología Neotropical. 22 (2): 311–318.
Ferrari, Stephen; Silva, Suleima. "Notes on the reproduction, behaviour and diet of Saguinus niger (Primates: Callitrichidae) in a forest remnant at the National Primate Centre, Ananindeua, Pará" (PDF). Biologia Geral e Experimental. 7 (1): 19–28.
Lopes, M. Aparecida; Ferrari, Stephen F. (18 December 2000). "Effects of Human Colonization on the Abundance and Diversity of Mammals in Eastern Brazilian Amazonia". Conservation Biology. 14 (6): 1658–1665. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2000.98402.x. PMID 35701945. S2CID 86605285.
Oliveira, Ana Cristina M.; Ferrari, Stephen F. (2008). "Habitat Exploitation by Free-ranging Saguinus niger in Eastern Amazonia". International Journal of Primatology. 25 (6): 1499–1510. doi:10.1007/s10764-008-9321-2. S2CID 19704935.
Oliveira, Ana Cristina M.; Ferrari, Stephen F. (September 2000). "Seed dispersal by black-handed tamarins, Saguinus midas niger (Callitrichinae, Primates): implications for the regeneration of degraded forest habitats in eastern Amazonia". Journal of Tropical Ecology. 16 (5): 709–716. doi:10.1017/s0266467400001668. S2CID 86831975.
de Oliveira, Tadeu G. (1 June 1998). "Leopardus wiedii". Mammalian Species (579): 1–6. doi:10.2307/3504400. JSTOR 3504400.
"Saguinus niger" at the Encyclopedia of LifeSuperregnum: Eukaryota
Cladus: Unikonta
Cladus: Opisthokonta
Cladus: Holozoa
Regnum: Animalia
Subregnum: Eumetazoa
Cladus: Bilateria
Cladus: Nephrozoa
Superphylum: Deuterostomia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Infraphylum: Gnathostomata
Megaclassis: Osteichthyes
Cladus: Sarcopterygii
Cladus: Rhipidistia
Cladus: Tetrapodomorpha
Cladus: Eotetrapodiformes
Cladus: Elpistostegalia
Superclassis: Tetrapoda
Cladus: Reptiliomorpha
Cladus: Amniota
Cladus: Synapsida
Cladus: Eupelycosauria
Cladus: Sphenacodontia
Cladus: Sphenacodontoidea
Cladus: Therapsida
Cladus: Theriodontia
Subordo: Cynodontia
Infraordo: Eucynodontia
Cladus: Probainognathia
Cladus: Prozostrodontia
Cladus: Mammaliaformes
Classis: Mammalia
Subclassis: Trechnotheria
Infraclassis: Zatheria
Supercohors: Theria
Cohors: Eutheria
Infraclassis: Placentalia
Cladus: Boreoeutheria
Superordo: Euarchontoglires
Ordo: Primates
Subordo: Haplorhini
Infraordo: Simiiformes
Parvordo: Platyrrhini
Familia: Cebidae
Subfamilia: Callithrichinae
Genus: Saguinus
Species: Saguinus mystax
Subspecies: S. m. mystax – S. m. pileatus – S. m. pluto
Name
Saguinus mystax (Spix, 1823)
Vernacular names
English: Moustached Tamarin
español: Tití bebeleche
português: Sagui-de-bigode
The moustached tamarin (Saguinus mystax) is a New World monkey and a species of tamarin. The moustached tamarin is named for the lack of coloring in the facial hair surrounding their mouth, appearing similar to a moustache. As with all New World monkeys, the moustached tamarin is found only in areas of Central and South America.
Taxonomy
There are 3 subspecies of the moustached tamarin:
Spix's moustached tamarin, Saguinus mystax mystax
White-rumped moustached tamarin, Saguinus mystax pluto
Red-capped tamarin, Saguinus mystax pileatus
Description
Moustached tamarins have a lifespan of about 20 years.[3] They are small, weighing 500 to 600 grams, and range in length from 30 to 92 centimeters, with adult females larger than males.[4][5]
Moustached tamarin monkeys are characterized by white, curly hair around their mouth, similar to a moustache.[6] Their face is flat with almond-like shaped eyes.[6] Their ears are furry and large, and they have long, silky, body hair.[6] They have a brownish-black body with a white moustache and white nose. They have tegula, which are claw-like nails, on each digit except their big toe.[3] These claws allow them to easily cling to trees while they feed. They have conical or spatulate incisors, which are used for cutting food, and are smaller than their canines.[5] The lingual and labial sides of their incisors have a thick layer of enamel. Unlike most New World Monkeys, the moustached tamarin monkey has non-opposable thumbs and lacks a prehensile tail.[6]
Vision
Heterozygous females, which make up about 60% of the female tamarin population, have trichromatic vision, while the remaining moustached tamarin population have dichromatic vision.[4] Trichromatic vision is the capacity to see a broader range of color due to the presence of three color receptors in the retina, at the back of the eye, allowing them to distinguish between greens, blues and reds.[4] Humans, as well as most species of Old World Monkeys, have trichromatic visual abilities; however, some female New World monkeys do as well. Dichromatic vision is a form of color vision in which only two of the primary colors are perceived.[4] Trichromatic vision is an evolutionary adaptation that enables females to more easily find and identify fruit. Color vision is a contributing factor for leadership selection in troops.
Habitat and distribution
Moustached tamarins are inhabitants of tropical rainforests in Brazil, Bolivia and Peru.[5] They live in arid, upland forests in the Amazonian lowland, mostly occupying higher tree branches. The home range of moustached tamarins is between 25 and 50 hectares.[4]
Ecology
Moustached tamarin in Serra do Divisor National Park, Acre, Brazil
Moustached tamarins are omnivorous, frugivorous and insectivorous. Their diet mainly consists of fruits, nectar, gum exudates, invertebrates and small vertebrates. Invertebrates include katydids, stick grasshoppers, and spiders.[5] Vertebrates include lizards and frogs. Gum feeding is seasonal, however it is a dietary staple during dry and early wet seasons when other resources are scarce. Exudates supplement nutrients and balance mineral intake; which prevent the species from experiencing a range of detrimental effects from a low-calcium and high-phosphorus insectivorous diet. They display a highly opportunistic foraging pattern, and the ratio and variety of their comestibles depend on the availability in their geographical location. Moustached tamarins select trees by the amount of nectar they yield, rather than proximity to their home range. This higher volume of nectar makes the chosen trees more reliable because it allows them to feed for longer periods. Their remarkable spatial memory allows them to quickly recall the location of fruiting trees. Spatial memory is vital because it aids in the exploitation of a widely scattered set of feeding sites and minimizes effort in foraging.[5]
The moustached tamarin monkey is a crucial seed disperser for many plant species as a result of their diverse diet. They spread the seeds of fruits they ingest, indirectly impacting forest regeneration and maintenance. They are opportunistic feeders, utilizing a wide range of plant resources, allowing them to disperse a variety of seed species, providing significant benefit to their ecosystem.[5]
Interspecific relationships
Moustached tamarins are territorial, however, they sometimes join with groups of brown-mantled tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis) and Geoffroy's saddle-back tamarin (Leontocebus nigrifrons).[4] These species can cohabit because they have varying locomotor types, hunting techniques, support preference, food selection, and reside in different strata of their forest habitat.[5] The brown-mantled tamarin and the moustached tamarin do not compete for the same resources. Sharing territory with another species facilitates predator avoidance, increasing survival chances for both groups. Having more eyes and ears provides greater protection.
Behaviour
Moustached tamarins are arboreal, diurnal and precocial.[3] Tamarins walk and run on all fours, similar to squirrels and use their claws for stability. The moustached tamarin monkey exercises three types of locomotion. Symmetrical quadrupedalism is the most frequently used locomotion type, followed by asymmetric quadrupedalism, and leaping.[5] The kind of leap depends on the layer of the forest they occupy. In the lower canopy “trunk-to-trunk” leaps are performed.[4] These are jumps that are short and quick, only reaching a length of 1 to 2 meters.[4] While standing on a medium or large-sized trunk, they propel themselves into the air and land on their front limbs on another trunk. They perform “bounding” leaps which allow them to cross between discontinuous trees, extending their legs farther out, reaching up to 2 meters.[4] In the high canopy, they perform “acrobatic” leaps. These are longer leaps, reaching 5 meters or more, used to travel between treetops.[4] While in the air, they use their tail to decelerate their body before landing on the crown of a nearby tree.
Moustached tamarin monkeys select densely foliated areas for resting and sleeping to best camouflage themselves because their small size makes them an easy target. Their main tactic is to avoid predation by attracting as little attention as possible. Their predators include eagles and other birds of prey, snakes, tayras, jaguarundis, ocelots and other wild cats.[5]
Social grooming can be used to develop bonds. The moustached tamarins use their claws to detangle and comb one another’s hair and remove parasites and dirt with their teeth and tongue.[4] Social grooming is not equally exercised by members and the amount of grooming services given and received depends on the social position of the individual.
Scent marking is used to identify territory boundaries and to communicate with others.[4] Females practice scent marking more frequently than males because it is also used in mate selection.[4] The three types of scent marking are circumanal marking, suprapubic marking and sternal marking.[6] Circumanal marking is the most commonly used type of scent marking.
Visual communication includes facial expressions, gestures, tonguing, and head-flicking. Tonguing is when a moustached tamarin moves its tongue across its lips. Head-flicking is when a moustached tamarin rapidly moves its head in an upward motion. Tonguing and head-flicking often co-occur and are used to communicate recognition, curiosity or anger.
Group dynamics
Group sizes are usually 4-8 individuals, excluding infants, and each group usually contains 1 or 2 adult females.[4] However, groups have been observed to reach up to 15 individuals and solitary individuals have been encountered. Routinely, groups of moustached tamarins leave early in the morning to forage for food. They do not feed simultaneously. One of the adults positions themselves near the feeding site and scans the surroundings for predators to protect the group during mealtimes. They then retire at night in highly foliated areas to protect themselves from predators during slumber.[4]
Conflict
There is often strife between neighboring groups of moustached tamarins due to limited food resources, especially near large feeding trees.[3] Vocal battles can arise, with long calls that consist of short syllables at a high frequency.[7] This type of conflict occurs between groups that are 25 meters or more apart.[7] Fights can be more aggressive however, often including alarm calls, visual contact, scent marking and a series of chases and retreats.[7] Adult males attack, inducing combative and loud vocalizations, while subadults chase one another.[4] Subsequently, there is a period of calm, and both groups forage for food and subadults examine the opposing group for mating opportunities.[4] The frequency of aggressive encounters increases during the breeding season and the majority of copulations occur during or directly after an aggressive encounter.[7]
Vocalizations
Vocalizations allow moustached tamarins to distinguish between individuals, organize group movements, and ensure all members are accounted for. If individuals become separated, individuals of the same group will produce 2 to 3 second long vocalizations to indicate their location.[5] These calls consist of repeated short, frequency-modulated syllables ranging from 8 to 12 kilohertz.[5] In the morning, moustached tamarins make calls to each other to coordinate movement for the day towards specific foraging sites. Young tamarins also make vocalizations while they run and chase each other during play.
Reproduction
The reproduction season of the moustached tamarin monkey is November to March, during which the oldest female reproduces.[5] Females go into oestrus for about 17 days.[4] Their gestation period is about 145 days, after which females give birth.[5] Other members of the group help to take care of the infants, allowing the female to give birth more than once a year. The eldest female frequently bears twins because they ovulate multiple ova during each reproductive cycle.[4] The twins can be up to a quarter of the mother’s size at birth. Females reach reproductive maturity at about 480 days, and males at 540 days.[5] Both sexes migrate to a different group in adulthood to avoid the risk of inbreeding.[4] Moustached tamarins practice a variety of mating systems: polyandry, polygyny or polygynandry.[3] The mothers often receive help from up to 4 or 5 other members of the group. In polyandrous groups, the alpha male tolerates the presence of other males who can provide infant-care.[4] Not having enough helpers can sometimes lead to infanticide by the mother.[4]
Conservation
The population trend for the moustached tamarin monkey is decreasing; however, the IUCN red list categorizes the moustache tamarin as least concerned.[8] They have demonstrated an ability to adapt to disturbed habitats and proximity to human settlements. They can acclimate well to changes in environmental conditions and their ecosystem. Habitat destruction remains an inevitable threat to their population as for all species living in the Amazonian rainforest. However, their ability to adapt gives hope that this factor will not severely affect their population numbers.
Economic importance
Moustached tamarin monkeys are economically significant because they are used extensively in biomedical research, like other tamarin species. They have been used in the development of the hepatitis A vaccine.
References
Groves, C. P. (2005). Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 135. ISBN 0-801-88221-4. OCLC 62265494.
Heymann, E.W.; Ravetta, A.L.; Röhe, F.; Mittermeier, R.A.; Rylands, A.B. (2021). "Saguinus mystax". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T41526A192552706. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T41526A192552706.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
"Moustached Tamarin". Animalia. Animalia. Retrieved 10 March 2020.
Abrams, Sylvie. "Moustached Tamarin". New England Primate Conservancy. New England Primate Conservancy. Retrieved 20 March 2020.
Lim, Jayne. "Saguinus mystax (Black-chested mustached tamarin)". Animal Diversity Web. Regents of the University of Michigan. Retrieved 12 March 2020.
Flannery, Sean. "Black-chested moustached tamarin". The Primata. Retrieved 9 March 2020.
Garber, P. A.; Pruetz, J. D.; Isaacson, J. (January 1993). "Patterns of range use, range defense, and intergroup spacing in moustached tamarin monkeys (Saguinus mystax)". Primates. 34: 11–25. doi:10.1007/BF02381276. S2CID 39461691.
Mittermeier, Russell A. "Moustached Tamarin". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 12 March 2020.
Further reading
Abourachid, Anick (1 July 2003). "A new way of analysing symmetrical and asymmetrical gaits in quadrupeds". Comptes Rendus Biologies. 326 (7): 625–630. doi:10.1016/S1631-0691(03)00170-7. PMID 14556381.
Garber, P. A.; Pruetz, J. D. (1 May 1995). "Positional behavior in moustached tamarin monkeys: effects of habitat on locomotor variability and locomotor stability". Journal of Human Evolution. 28 (5): 411–426. doi:10.1006/jhev.1995.1032.
Löttker, Petra; Huck, Maren; Heymann, Eckhard W. (December 2004). "Demographic parameters and events in wild moustached Tamarins (Saguinus Mystax)". American Journal of Primatology. 64 (4): 425–449. doi:10.1002/ajp.20090. PMID 15580582. S2CID 30499821.
"Callitrichidae (Marmosets and Tamarins)". Handbook of the Mammals of the World.
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