Gracupica contra (*)
Superregnum: Eukaryota
Cladus: Unikonta
Cladus: Opisthokonta
Cladus: Holozoa
Regnum: Animalia
Subregnum: Eumetazoa
Cladus: Bilateria
Cladus: Nephrozoa
Superphylum: Deuterostomia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Infraphylum: Gnathostomata
Megaclassis: Osteichthyes
Cladus: Sarcopterygii
Cladus: Rhipidistia
Cladus: Tetrapodomorpha
Cladus: Eotetrapodiformes
Cladus: Elpistostegalia
Superclassis: Tetrapoda
Cladus: Reptiliomorpha
Cladus: Amniota
Classis: Reptilia
Cladus: Eureptilia
Cladus: Romeriida
Subclassis: Diapsida
Cladus: Sauria
Infraclassis: Archosauromorpha
Cladus: Crurotarsi
Divisio: Archosauria
Cladus: Avemetatarsalia
Cladus: Ornithodira
Subtaxon: Dinosauromorpha
Cladus: Dinosauriformes
Cladus: Dracohors
Cladus: Dinosauria
Ordo: Saurischia
Cladus: Eusaurischia
Subordo: Theropoda
Cladus: Neotheropoda
Cladus: Averostra
Cladus: Tetanurae
Cladus: Avetheropoda
Cladus: Coelurosauria
Cladus: Tyrannoraptora
Cladus: Maniraptoromorpha
Cladus: Maniraptoriformes
Cladus: Maniraptora
Cladus: Pennaraptora
Cladus: Paraves
Cladus: Eumaniraptora
Cladus: Avialae
Infraclassis: Aves
Cladus: Euavialae
Cladus: Avebrevicauda
Cladus: Pygostylia
Cladus: Ornithothoraces
Cladus: Ornithuromorpha
Cladus: Carinatae
Parvclassis: Neornithes
Cohors: Neognathae
Cladus: Neoaves
Cladus: Telluraves
Cladus: Australaves
Ordo: Passeriformes
Subordo: Passeri
Infraordo: Passerida
Superfamilia: Muscicapoidea
Familia: Sturnidae
Genus: Gracupica
Species: Gracupica contra
Subspecies: G. c. contra – G. c. floweri – G. c. jalla – G. c. sordidus – G. c. superciliaris
Name
Gracupica contra (Linnaeus, 1758)
Synonyms
Sturnus contra (protonym)
References
Linnaeus, C. 1758. Systema Naturae per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis, Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. Holmiæ: impensis direct. Laurentii Salvii. i–ii, 1–824 pp DOI: 10.5962/bhl.title.542: 167. Reference page.
Vernacular names
भोजपुरी: सिरोई मैना
বাংলা: গো শালিক
català: Estornell pàl·lid asiàtic
Cymraeg: Drudwen fraith Asia
Deutsch: Elsterstar
English: Pied Myna
Esperanto: Ringokula sturno
español: Estornino pío
suomi: Kyläkottarainen
français: Étourneau pie
Bahasa Indonesia: Jalak suren
italiano: Storno asiatico
Jawa: Jalak surèn
қазақша: Ала қараторғай
кырык мары: Ала шӹнгӹртӹш
Bahasa Melayu: Jalak suren
Nederlands: Eksterspreeuw
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ: ਡੱਬੀ ਮੈਨਾ
پنجابی: ڈبی مینا
русский: Пегий скворец
svenska: Svartvit stare
தமிழ்: கறுப்பு வெள்ளை மைனா
Tiếng Việt: Sáo khoang châu Á
中文（繁體）: 斑椋鳥
中文: 斑椋鸟
The Indian pied myna (Gracupica contra) is a species of starling found in the Indian subcontinent. It is usually found in small groups mainly on the plains and low foothills. It is often seen within cities and villages although it is not as bold as the common myna. It produces a range of calls made up of liquid notes.
Taxonomy
The Indian pied myna was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Sturnus contra.[2] Linnaeus based his description on the "Contra, from Bengall" that had been described and illustrated in 1738 by Eleazar Albin and the "Black and White Indian Starling" that had been described and illustrated in 1751 by George Edwards.[2][3][4] Albin believed that "contra" was the Bengali word for this species, but this name was not known in the 19th century.[3][5] Linnaeus specified the type locality as India but this was restricted to Calcutta by the British ornithologist E. C. Stuart Baker in 1921.[6][7] In the past the Indian pied myna has been included in the genera Sturnus and Sturnopastor but based on results from molecular phylogenetic analysis it is now placed in the resurrected genus Gracupica that had been introduced in 1831 by the French naturalist René Lesson.[8][9][10][11]
Two subspecies are recognised:[11]
G. c. contra (Linnaeus, 1758) – east Pakistan, north, central, India, south Nepal and Bangladesh (includes sordida)
G. c. superciliaris (Blyth, 1863) – Manipur (northeast India), north, central, southeast Myanmar and southwest China
An early illustration by George Edwards (1751)
It is found mainly along the Gangetic plains extending south into Andhra Pradesh and east to Bangladesh. The population in northeastern India (Sadiya to Tirap and the Naga Hills) was named as sordida (originally Sturnus contra sordidus) by Sidney Dillon Ripley in 1950. This form differs from the Indian form in having reduced streaking on the shoulders and nape. The populations in Manipur south to Myanmar and east to Yunnan have the white extending over the eye and are included in the subspecies superciliaris first described by Edward Blyth in 1863.
A 2021 study found that G. contra represents a species complex of 3 distinct species: the Indian pied myna (G. contra sensu stricto) from most of the Indian Subcontinent, Myanmar, and Yunnan in China, with subspecies sordida and superciliaris; the monotypic Siamese pied myna (G. floweri) from Thailand and Cambodia, and the monotypic possibly extinct in the wild Javan pied myna(G. jalla), historically known from Java and Bali in Indonesia. G. jalla was likely driven to extinction in the wild due to the illegal songbird trade becoming increasingly pervasive in Indonesia, and in captivity it is likely threatened by hybridization with captured individuals of mainland pied myna species. It has been recommended to search for genetically pure members of the species in the wildlife trade for the purpose of captive breeding; a potential captive population of pure G. jalla exists at Bali Bird Park.[12]
Asian Pied Starling (Pied Myna)...
Description
This myna is strikingly marked in black and white and has a yellowish bill with a reddish bill base. The bare skin around the eye is reddish. The upper body, throat and breast are black while the cheek, lores, wing coverts and rump are contrastingly white. The sexes are similar in plumage but young birds have dark brown in place of black.[13] The subspecies vary slightly in plumage, extent of streaking of the feathers and in measurements.
The flight is slow and butterfly-like on round wings.[14]
Leucistic individuals have been recorded.[15]
Distribution and habitat
The species is found mainly in the plains but in the foothills up to about 700m above sea level. They are found mainly in areas with access to open water. Their main distribution in India is from the Gangetic plains extending south to the Krishna River. Their range is increasing, with populations establishing more recently in Pakistan,[14][16] Rajkot,[17] and Bombay (since 1953),[18] possibly aided by trade in caged birds and accidental escape.[19] Their westerward spread in India particularly in parts of Rajasthan has been aided by changes in irrigation and farming patterns.[14][20] The species has also established itself in Dubai, UAE.[1]
The habitat is lowland open areas with scattered trees near water, often near human habitation. This species is often seen at sewage farms and refuse tips.[14]
Behaviour
Nest
These starlings are usually found in small groups, foraging mainly on the ground but perching on trees and buildings. Birds in a group call frequently with a wide repertoire that includes whistles, trills, buzzes, clicks, and warbling calls. Young birds taken into captivity have been trained to imitate tunes of other birds.
Both sexes sing.[14] They forage in fields, lawns and on open ground feeding on grains, fruit, insects, earthworms and molluscs usually taken from the ground. Like many other starlings, they often use a prying or gaping action, piercing soil and then opening apart the bill to dislodge hidden food.[21] The strong protractor muscles allow them to part a mat of grass and their eyes are positioned to obtain a binocular view of the space between the parted beak.[22][23] They often feed in grazing land or among cattle.[14]
The breeding season in India is spread from March to September. With the onset of breeding, the sizes of flocks decline and birds pair up. Courtship involves calling, fluffing of the feathers and head bobbing. The nest is a loose mass of straw formed into a dome with an entrance on the side and placed in a large tree (often banyan, mango, jackfruit, rosewood[24]) or sometimes on man-made structures,[25] often close to human habitation. Several pairs will breed in the same vicinity. The usual clutch is made up of about four to six glossy blue eggs. Each egg is laid with a day in between and incubation begins only after the third or fourth egg is laid. The eggs hatch after 14 to 15 days. The young are brooded for two weeks, the female staying at the nest during the night. Both parents feed the chicks until they fledge and leave after three weeks. More than one brood may be raised in a season.[13][26][27]
An instance of interspecific feeding, where an adult of a common myna fed a young Indian pied myna has been reported.[28]
These mynas form communal roosts at night and jointly defend nesting areas.[14]
Asian Pied Starling (Pied Myna) near Chandigarh.
In culture
The ability of these mynas to mimic human voices made them popular as cagebirds. The Sema Nagas will not eat this bird as they believe it is the reincarnation of a human.[29] They are considered to be generally beneficial because they eat many insects.[14]
References
BirdLife International (2017). "Gracupica contra". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T103890729A118852226. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T103890729A118852226.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae (Stockholm): Laurentii Salvii. p. 167.
Albin, Eleazar; Derham, William (1738). "The Contra, from Bengall". A Natural History of Birds : Illustrated with a Hundred and One Copper Plates, Curiously Engraven from the Life. Vol. 3. London: Printed for the author and sold by William Innys. p. 20, Plate 21.
Edwards, George (1751). "The Black and White Indian Starling". A Natural History of Uncommon Birds. Vol. Part 4. London: Printed for the author at the College of Physicians. p. 187.
Sundevall, Carl J. (1846). "The birds of Calcutta, collected and described by Carl J. Sundevall (continued)". Annals and Magazine of Natural History. Series 1. 18: 303–309 [305]. doi:10.1080/037454809496589.
Baker, E.C. Stuart (1921). "Hand-list of the "Birds of India" Part III". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 27: 692-744 [702].
Mayr, Ernst; Greenway, James C. Jr, eds. (1962). Check-list of Birds of the World. Vol. 15. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Museum of Comparative Zoology. p. 110.
Zuccon, Dario; Cibois, Anne; Pasquet, Eric; Ericson, Per G. P. (2006). "Nuclear and mitochondrial sequence data reveal the major lineages of starlings, mynas and related taxa". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 41 (2): 333–344. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.05.007. PMID 16806992.
Lovette, I.; McCleery, B.; Talaba, A. & Rubenstein, D. (2008). "A complete species-level molecular phylogeny for the "Eurasian" starlings (Sturnidae: Sturnus, Acridotheres, and allies): Recent diversification in a highly social and dispersive avian group". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 47 (1): 251–260. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2008.01.020.
Lesson, René (1831). Traité d'Ornithologie, ou Tableau Méthodique (in French). Paris: F.G. Levrault. p. 401 (livraison 6). Published in 8 livraisons between 1830 and 1831. For the publication date see: Dickinson, E.C.; Overstreet, L.K.; Dowsett, R.J.; Bruce, M.D. (2011). Priority! The Dating of Scientific Names in Ornithology: a Directory to the literature and its reviewers. Northampton, UK: Aves Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-9568611-1-5.
Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (July 2021). "Nuthatches, Wallcreeper, treecreepers, mockingbirds, starlings, oxpeckers". IOC World Bird List Version 11.2. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
Baveja, Pratibha; Garg, Kritika M.; Chattopadhyay, Balaji; Sadanandan, Keren R.; Prawiradilaga, Dewi M.; Yuda, Pramana; Lee, Jessica G. H.; Rheindt, Frank E. (2021). "Using historical genome-wide DNA to unravel the confused taxonomy in a songbird lineage that is extinct in the wild". Evolutionary Applications. 14 (3): 698–709. doi:10.1111/eva.13149. ISSN 1752-4571. PMC 7980273. PMID 33767745.
Rasmussen, P.C.; Anderton, J.C. (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Volume 2. Washington DC and Barcelona: Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions. p. 583.
Freare, Chris; Craig, Adrian (1998). Starlings and Mynas. London: Croom Helm. pp. 167–168. ISBN 071363961X.
Inglis, CM (1904). "The birds of the Madhubani sub-division of the Darbhanga district, Tirhut, with notes on species noticed elsewhere in the district. Part VIII". J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 16 (1): 70–75.
Murtaza, Syed Ali (1997). "Record of the sightings and breeding of Pied Mynah Sturnus contra at Lahore". J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 94 (3): 569–570.
Raol, LM (1966). "Unexpected bird". Newsletter for Birdwatchers. 6 (7): 9–10.
George, NJ (1971). "The Pied Myna, Sturnus contra (Linnaeus) in Bombay". J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (1): 243–244.
Naik, Vasant R (1987). "Nest of the Pied Myna Sturnus contra Linnaeus". J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 84 (1): 210.
Sharma SK (2004). "Present distribution of Asian Pied Starling Sturnus contra in Rajasthan". Zoos' Print Journal. 19 (12): 1716–1718. doi:10.11609/jott.zpj.1222.1716-8.
Zuccon, Dario; Pasquet, Eric; Ericson, Per G. P. (2008). "Phylogenetic relationships among Palearctic–Oriental starlings and mynas (genera Sturnus and Acridotheres: Sturnidae)" (PDF). Zoologica Scripta. 37 (5): 469–481. doi:10.1111/j.1463-6409.2008.00339.x. S2CID 56403448.
Beecher, William J. (1953). "A phylogeny of the Oscines" (PDF). Auk. 70 (3): 270–333. doi:10.2307/4081321. JSTOR 4081321.
Mayr, Gerald (2005). "A new eocene Chascacocolius-like mousebird (Aves: Coliiformes) with a remarkable gaping adaptation" (PDF). Organisms, Diversity & Evolution. 5 (3): 167–171. doi:10.1016/j.ode.2004.10.013.
Pandey, Deep Narayan (1991). "Nesting habitat selection by the Pied Myna Sturnus contra Linn". J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 88 (2): 285–286.
Tiwari, JK (1992). "An unusual nesting site of Pied Myna". Newsletter for Birdwatchers. 32 (3–4): 12.
Ali, S & S D Ripley (1986). Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Volume 5 (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 172–175.
Narang, ML; Tyagi, AK; Lamba, BS (1978). "A contribution to the ecology of Indian Pied Myna, Sturnus contra contra Linnaeus". J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 1157–1177.
Inglis, CM (1910). "Common Myna (A. tristis) feeding young of Pied Myna (S. contra) and nesting habits of the Common Pariah Kite (M. govinda) and Brahminy Kite (H. indus)". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 19 (4): 985.
Hutton JH (1921). The Sema Nagas. London: Macmillan and Co. p. 92.
Other sources
Ray, D (1972) Pied Myna Sturnus contra in Delhi. Newsletter for Birdwatchers. 12(10):11.
Narang, ML; Lamba, BS (1976) On the feeding-time and feeding-area preference of Indian Pied Myna, Sturnus contra Linn. Newsl. Zool. Surv. India 2(3), 83–86.
Gupta, AP (1982) About the distribution of birds. Newsletter for Birdwatchers. 22(2):10
Saini, Harjeet K; Chawla, Geeta; Dhindsa, Manjit S (1995): Food of Pied Myna Sturnus contra in the agroecosystem of Punjab. Pavo 33(1&2):47–62.
Chawla, G (1993) Ecological studies on the Pied Myna (Sturnus contra) in an intensively cultivated area. M.Sc. Thesis, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana.
Gupta, SK & BR Maiti (1986). "Study of atresia in the ovary during the annual reproductive cycle and nesting cycle of the pied myna". Journal of Morphology. 190 (3): 285–296. doi:10.1002/jmor.1051900305. PMID 29954160. S2CID 49588404.
Gupta SK & B. R. Maiti (1987). "The male sex accessories in the annual reproductive cycle of the Pied Myna Sturnus contra contra". J. Yamashina Inst. Ornithol. 19: 45–55. doi:10.3312/jyio1952.19.45.
Islam, M.S. (2001). "Southward Migration of Shorebirds in the Ganges Delta, Bangladesh" (PDF). The Stilt. 39 (31–36): 34.
Tyagi, A.K.; Lamba, B.S. A contribution to the breeding biology of two Indian mynas. Miscellaneous publication. Occasional paper no. 5 (PDF). Calcutta: Zoological Survey of India.
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