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Superregnum: Eukaryota
Cladus: Unikonta
Cladus: Opisthokonta
Cladus: Holozoa
Regnum: Animalia
Subregnum: Eumetazoa
Cladus: Bilateria
Cladus: Nephrozoa
Superphylum: Deuterostomia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Infraphylum: Gnathostomata
Megaclassis: Osteichthyes
Cladus: Sarcopterygii
Cladus: Rhipidistia
Cladus: Tetrapodomorpha
Cladus: Eotetrapodiformes
Cladus: Elpistostegalia
Superclassis: Tetrapoda
Cladus: Reptiliomorpha
Cladus: Amniota
Classis: Reptilia
Cladus: Eureptilia
Cladus: Romeriida
Subclassis: Diapsida
Cladus: Sauria
Infraclassis: Archosauromorpha
Cladus: Crurotarsi
Divisio: Archosauria
Cladus: Avemetatarsalia
Cladus: Ornithodira
Subtaxon: Dinosauromorpha
Cladus: Dinosauriformes
Cladus: Dracohors
Cladus: Dinosauria
Ordo: Saurischia
Cladus: Eusaurischia
Subordo: Theropoda
Cladus: Neotheropoda
Cladus: Averostra
Cladus: Tetanurae
Cladus: Avetheropoda
Cladus: Coelurosauria
Cladus: Tyrannoraptora
Cladus: Maniraptoromorpha
Cladus: Maniraptoriformes
Cladus: Maniraptora
Cladus: Pennaraptora
Cladus: Paraves
Cladus: Eumaniraptora
Cladus: Avialae
Infraclassis: Aves
Cladus: Euavialae
Cladus: Avebrevicauda
Cladus: Pygostylia
Cladus: Ornithothoraces
Cladus: Ornithuromorpha
Cladus: Carinatae
Parvclassis: Neornithes
Cohors: Neognathae
Cladus: Neoaves
Cladus: Telluraves
Cladus: Australaves
Ordo: Psittaciformes
Familia: Psittacidae
Subfamilia: Psittacinae
Tribus: Androglossini
Genus: Amazona
Species: Amazona ochrocephala
Subspecies: A. o. nattereri – A. o. ochrocephala – A. o. panamensis – A. o. xantholaema
Name
Amazona ochrocephala (Gmelin, 1788
Synonyms
Psittacus ochrocephalus (protonym)
References
Primary references
Gmelin, J.F. 1788. Caroli a Linné systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima tertia, aucta, reformata. - pp. i–xii, 1–500. Lipsiae. (Beer). DOI: 10.5962/bhl.title.545 Original description p. 339 BHL Reference page.
Additional references
Eberhard, J.R. & Bermingham, E. 2004. Phylogeny and biogeography of the Amazona ochrocephala (Aves: Psittacidae) complex. The Auk 121(2): 318–332. DOI: 10.2307/4090396 Full article viewReference page.
Vernacular names
English: Yellow-crowned Amazon
español: Amazona real
português: ajuruapara, papagaio-campeiro, aiuruapara
The yellow-crowned amazon or yellow-crowned parrot (Amazona ochrocephala) is a species of parrot native to tropical South America, Panama and Trinidad and Tobago. The taxonomy is highly complex and the yellow-headed (A. oratrix) and yellow-naped amazon (A. auropalliata) are sometimes considered subspecies of the yellow-crowned amazon. Except in the taxonomic section, the following deals only with the nominate group (including subspecies xantholaema, nattereri and panamensis).They are found in the Amazon basin.
Taxonomy
A. o. ochrocephala
The yellow-crowned amazon was formally described in 1788 by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his revised and expanded edition of Carl Linnaeus's Systema Naturae. He placed it with all the other parrots in the genus Psittacus and coined the binomial name Psittacus ochrocephalus.[2] Gmelin specified the type locality as "America", but this was restricted to Venezuela in 1902.[3][4] The yellow-crowned amazon is now one of around thirty species of parrot placed in the genus Amazona that was introduced by the French naturalist René Lesson in 1830.[5][6] The genus name is a Latinized version of the name Amazone given to these parrot in the 18th century by the Comte de Buffon, who believed they were native to Amazonian jungles. The specific ochrocephala combines the Ancient Greek ōkhros meaning "pale yellow" with -kephalos meaning "-headed".[7]
Four subspecies are recognised:[6]
A. o. panamensis (Cabanis, 1874) – west Panama and northwest Colombia
A. o. ochrocephala (Gmelin, JF, 1788) – east Colombia and Venezuela through the Guianas and north Brazil
A. o. xantholaema Berlepsch, 1913 – island of Marajó (off north Brazil in the Amazon delta)
A. o. nattereri (Finsch, 1865) – south Colombia to east Peru, north Bolivia and west Brazil
The Amazona ochrocephala complex, which has been described as "a taxonomic headache",[8] is considered a single species by some authorities and split into three species, A. ochrocephala (yellow-crowned amazon), A. auropalliata (yellow-naped amazon) and A. oratrix (yellow-headed amazon), by others. The split is mainly based on the amount of yellow in the plumage, the color of the legs and bill, the close proximity of the oratrix group and auropalliata group in Oaxaca, Mexico, without apparent interbreeding[9] and the presence of members of both the nominate group and the auropalliata group in northern Honduras.[10] This evaluation has, however, been confused by misunderstandings regarding the plumage variations in the populations in northern Honduras, where birds vary greatly in amount of yellow on the head, crown and nape, but have pale bills and a juvenile plumage matching the oratrix group, but neither the nominate nor the auropalliata group.[8][11] The taxon caribaea from the Bay Islands is a member of the auropalliata group, and occurs in relatively close proximity to the members of the oratrix group. As caribaea may have a relatively pale lower mandible, this could indicating a level of gene flow between this and the nearby taxa of the oratrix group.[12] If confirmed, this could suggest that the two are better considered conspecific. Alternatively, it has been suggested that caribaea and parvipes, both typically placed in the auropalliata group, may be closer to the oratrix than they are to the auropalliata sensu stricto. Both are relatively small and have red to the shoulder as in the members of the oratrix group, but unlike auropalliata sensu stricto.[8][11]
The members of this complex are known to hybridize in captivity[8] and recent phylogenetic analysis of DNA did not support the split into the three "traditional" biological species, but did reveal three clades, which potentially could be split into three phylogenetic species: a Mexican and Central American species (incl. panamensis, which extends slightly into South America), a species of northern South America (northern nominate), and a species from the southern Amazon basin (nattereri, xantholaema and southern nominate).[13] The Central American clade can potentially be split further, with panamensis and tresmariae recognized as two monotypic species. The members of the clade from the southern Amazon basin should arguably be included as subspecies of the blue-fronted amazon, as they are closer to each other than to the northern clades.[13][14][15] Disregarding these problems, the following taxa are part of the Amazona ochrocephala complex as traditionally delimited:[16]
nominate group ("true" yellow-crowned amazon):
Amazona o. ochrocephala: East-central and southeastern Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana and the northern and eastern Amazon basin in Brazil.
Amazona o. xantholaema: Marajó Island, in the Amazon River delta of northeastern Brazil.
Amazona o. nattereri: Far southeastern Colombia, eastern Ecuador, eastern Peru, northern Bolivia and the southwestern Amazon basin of Brazil (east to around Mato Grosso); often included in A. o. ochrocephala.[17]
Amazona o. panamensis: Western Panama to northwestern Colombia; sometimes called the Panama amazon
auropalliata group (yellow-naped amazon):
Amazona a./o. auropalliata: Southern Mexico to northwestern Costa Rica.
Amazona a./o. parvipes: The Mosquito Coast in eastern Honduras and northeastern Nicaragua.
Amazona a./o. caribaea: The Bay Islands, Honduras.
oratrix group (yellow-headed amazon):
Amazona o./o. oratrix: The Pacific and Gulf slopes of Mexico; also, a population in Stuttgart exists.
Amazona o./o. tresmariae: The Tres Marías Islands, off west-central Mexico.
Amazona o./o. belizensis: Belize.
Amazona o./o. hondurensis: The Sula Valley in northern Honduras.
Of these, hondurensis was only recently described,[18] while the population in northwestern Honduras and adjacent eastern Guatemala (near Puerto Barrios) resembles belizensis and is commonly included in that subspecies, but may actually represent an undescribed subspecies. It has sometimes been referred to as guatemalensis,[16] but until it is officially described, the name remains provisional. An additional subspecies, magna, has sometimes been recognized for the population on the Gulf slope of Mexico, but today most authorities consider it invalid, instead including this population in oratrix.[17][8][19]
Description
Pet parrot
Subspecies in the nominate group (including subspecies xantholaema, nattereri and panamensis) have a total length of 33–38 cm (13–15 in). As most other amazon parrots, it has a short squarish tail and primarily green plumage. It has dark blue tips to the secondaries and primaries and a red wing speculum, carpal edge (leading edge of the wing at the "shoulder") and base of the outer tail feathers.[16] The red and dark blue sections are often difficult to see when the bird is perched, while the red base of the outer tail feathers only infrequently can be seen under normal viewing conditions in the wild.[20] The amount of yellow to the head varies, with the nominate, nattereri and panamensis having yellow restricted to the crown-region (occasionally with a few random feathers around the eyes),[20] while the subspecies xantholaema has most of the head yellow.[16] All have a white eye-ring. They have a dark bill with a large horn (gray) or reddish spot on the upper mandible, except panamensis, which has a horn-colored beak. Males and females do not differ in plumage. Except for the wing speculum, juveniles have little yellow and red to the plumage.[16]
Distribution and habitat
The yellow-crowned amazon is found in the Amazon basin and Guianas, with additional populations in northwestern South America and Panama. It has been introduced to Grand Cayman. It is a bird of tropical forests (both humid and dry), woodlands, mangroves, and savannas and may also be found on cultivated land and suburban areas. In the southern part of its range, it is rarely found far from the Amazon rainforest. It is mainly a lowland bird, but has locally been recorded up to 800 m (2600 ft) along on the eastern slopes of the Andes.[21] Introduced–and apparently breeding–populations have been reported in Puerto Rico.[22]
A wild colony of around 60 animals has been living in Stuttgart, Germany, since the mid-1980s. [23]
Behaviour
Food and feeding
They are normally found in pairs or small flocks up to 30, but larger groups may gather at clay licks. Their food includes fruits, nuts, seeds and berries.[17] Foods with sugar and a large amount of salt can be dangerous for them.
Breeding
The nest is in a hollow in a tree, palm or termitarium, where they lay two to three eggs.[16] The incubation time is about 26 days and the chicks leave the nest about 60 days from hatching.[17][24]
Conservation
The yellow-crowned amazon is considered to be of least concern by BirdLife International, and consequently, also by IUCN. Although populations are believed to be in decline, they do not yet approach the threshold specified by BirdLife International to rate the species as near threatened. As is the case with most parrots, it is listed on appendix II of CITES.[25] It occurs in numerous protected areas and remains fairly common throughout a large part of its range.[20][21]
References
BirdLife International (2018). "Amazona ochrocephala". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018: e.T22686346A131919991. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22686346A131919991.en. Retrieved 13 November 2021.
Gmelin, Johann Friedrich (1788). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae : secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. 1, Part 1 (13th ed.). Lipsiae [Leipzig]: Georg. Emanuel. Beer. p. 339.
Berlepsch, Hans von; Hartert, Ernst (1902). "On the birds of the Orinoco region". Novitates Zoologicae. 9: 1–135 [109].
Peters, James Lee, ed. (1937). Check-List of Birds of the World. Vol. 3. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 221.
Lesson, René (1831). Traité d'Ornithologie, ou Tableau Méthodique (in French). Vol. 1. Paris: F.G. Levrault. p. 189.
Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (January 2022). "Parrots, cockatoos". IOC World Bird List Version 12.1. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 26 March 2022.
Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 44, 279. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
Steve N. G. Howell & Sophie Webb (1995). A Guide to the Birds of Mexico and Northern Central America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854012-4.
Binford, L. (1989). A distributional survey of the birds of the Mexican state of Oaxaca. Ornithological Monographs. 43: 1–418.
Monroe, B., Monroe, JR. & T. Howell. (1966). Geographic variation in Middle American parrots of the Amazona ochrocephala complex. Occasional Papers of the Museum of Zoology, no. 34. Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge.
Lousada, S., & S. Howell. 1996. Distribution, variation, and conservation of Yellow-headed Parrots in northern Central America. Cotinga 5: 46-53.
Lousada, S. 1989. Amazona auropalliata caribaea: A new subspecies of parrot from the Bay Islands, northern Honduras. Bull. BOC 109: 232-235.
Eberhard, J., & E. Bermingham. 2004. Phylogeny and Biogeography of the Amazona ochrocephala (Aves: Psittacidae) Complex. Auk 121(#2): 318-332
Russello, M. A., & Amato, G. (2004). A molecular phylogeny of Amazona: implications for Neotropical parrot biogeography, taxonomy, and conservation. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 30(#2): 421-437
Ribas, C. C., Tavares, E. S., Yoshihara, C., & Miyaki C. Y. (2007). Phylogeny and biogeography of yellow-headed and blue-fronted parrots (Amazona ochrocephala and Amazona aestiva) with special reference to the South American taxa. Ibis 149: 564-574
Juniper, T., & M. Parr. 1998. A Guide to the Parrots of the World. Pica Press, East Sussex. ISBN 1-873403-40-2
Collar, N. 1997. Amazona ochrocephala (Yellow-crowned parrot). Pp 473-474 in: del Hoyo, J., A. Elliott & J. Sargatal. Eds. 1997. Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 4. Sangrouse to Cuckoos. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. ISBN 84-87334-22-9
Lousada, S., & S. Howell. 1997. Amazona oratrix hondurensis: A new subspecies of parrot from the Sula Valley of northern Honduras. Bull. BOC 117: 203-223.
Clements, J. 2007. The Clements Checklist of the Birds of the World. Christopher Helm. ISBN 978-0-7136-8695-1
Steven Hilty (2003). Birds of Venezuela (2nd ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02131-7.
Schulenberg, T.; Stotz, D.; Lane, D.; O'Neill, J.; Parker, T., III (2007). Birds of Peru. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-7136-8673-9.
Falcón, Wilfredo; Tremblay, Raymond L. (2018). "From the cage to the wild: Introductions of Psittaciformes to Puerto Rico". PeerJ. 6:e5669: e5669. doi:10.7717/peerj.5669. PMC 6214232. PMID 30397538. Retrieved 17 November 2018.
"Einzige wilde Gelbkopfamazonen-Kolonie Europas lebt in Stuttgart - STIMME.de". www.stimme.de (in German). Retrieved 2021-12-29.
Alderton, David (2003). The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Caged and Aviary Birds. London, England: Hermes House. p. 231. ISBN 1-84309-164-X.
CITES listings. Retrieved on 2 February 2008
Aguilar Héctor F. "Algunas Notas sobre el Loro Real Amazona ochrocephala (Gmelin) (Psittacidae: Pcittacinae. Arini)en Venezuela. Rev. Ecol. Lat. Am. 8(1): 17-39, 2001" (PDF). Revista de Ecología Latinoamericana. ISSN 1012-2494.
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