Phoenix dactylifera

Life-forms

Classification System: APG IV

Superregnum: Eukaryota
Regnum: Plantae
Cladus: Angiosperms
Cladus: Monocots
Cladus: Commelinids
Ordo: Arecales

Familia: Arecaceae
Subfamilia: Coryphoideae
Tribus: Phoeniceae
Genus: Phoenix
Species: Phoenix dactylifera
Name

Phoenix dactylifera L. (1753)
Synonyms

Homotypic
Palma dactylifera (L.) Mill., Gard. Dict. ed. 8: n. 1. 1768.
Phoenix excelsior Cav., Icon. 2: 13. 1793, nom. illeg.
Heterotypic
Encephalartos pungens (L.f. ex Aiton) Lehm., Nov. Stirp. Pug. 6: 13. 1834.
Macrozamia tridentata var. pungens J.Schust. in Engl. (ed.), Pflanzenr., IV, 1: 93. 1932.
Palma major Garsault, Fig. Pl. Méd. t. 47. 1764, opus utique oppr.
Phoenix atlantica var. maroccana A.Chev., Compt. Rend. Hebd. Séances Acad. Sci. 2: 172. 1952.
Phoenix chevalieri D.Rivera, S.Ríos & Obón, Varied. Trad. Frut. Cuenca Río Segura Cat. Etnobot. 1: 79. 1997.
Phoenix dactylifera var. adunca D.H.Christ ex Becc., Malesia 3: 357. 1890.
Phoenix dactylifera var. costata Becc., Malesia 3: 357. 1890.
Phoenix dactylifera var. cylindrocarpa Mart., Hist. Nat. Palm. 3: 258. 1838.
Phoenix dactylifera var. gonocarpa Mart., Hist. Nat. Palm. 3: 258. 1838.
Phoenix dactylifera var. oocarpa Mart., Hist. Nat. Palm. 3: 258. 1838.
Phoenix dactylifera var. oxysperma Mart., Hist. Nat. Palm. 3: 258. 1838.
Phoenix dactylifera var. sphaerocarpa Mart., Hist. Nat. Palm. 3: 258. 1838.
Phoenix dactylifera var. sphaerosperma Mart., Hist. Nat. Palm. 3: 258. 1838.
Phoenix dactylifera var. sylvestris Mart., Hist. Nat. Palm. 3: 258. 1838.
Phoenix iberica D.Rivera, S.Ríos & Obón, Varied. Trad. Frut. Cuenca Río Segura Cat. Etnobot. 1: 73. 1997.
Zamia pallida Salisb., Prodr. Stirp. Chap. Allerton: 401. 1796, nom. superfl.
Zamia pungens L.f. ex Aiton, Hort. Kew. 3: 478. 1789.

Distribution
Native distribution areas:

Continental: Asie
Arabian Pen. to S. Pakistan

References: Brummitt, R.K. 2001. TDWG – World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions, 2nd Edition
References

Linnaeus, C. 1753. Species Plantarum 2: 1188.

Links

Govaerts, R. et al. 2018. Phoenix dactylifera in World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the internet. Accessed: 2018 Dec. 19. Reference page.
International Plant Names Index. 2018. Phoenix dactylifera. Published online. Accessed: Dec. 19 2018.
The Plant List 2013. Phoenix dactylifera in The Plant List Version 1.1. Published on the internet. Accessed: 2018 Dec. 19.
Tropicos.org 2018. Phoenix dactylifera. Missouri Botanical Garden. Published on the internet. Accessed: 2018 Dec. 19.
USDA, ARS, Germplasm Resources Information Network. Phoenix dactylifera in the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN), U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service. Accessed: 08-Apr-12.

Vernacular names
Afrikaans: Dadelpalm
العربية: نخلة
беларуская: Фінікавая пальма
български: Финикова палма
বাংলা: খেজুর
bosanski: Datula
català: Palmera datilera
Cymraeg: Palmwydden ddatys
dansk: Ægte Daddelpalme
Deutsch: Echte Dattelpalme
Ελληνικά: Χουρμάς
English: Date Palm
Esperanto: Daktilopalmo
español: Phoenix dactylifera
eesti: Datlipalm
فارسی: خرما
suomi: Välimerentaateli
Nordfriisk: Echt datelpualem
français: Palmier-dattier
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî: Tsûng-su
עברית: תמר מצוי
हिन्दी: खजूर
hrvatski: Datulja
hornjoserbsce: Wšědny datlowc
magyar: Közönséges datolyapálma
interlingua: Palma de Dactylo
Bahasa, Indonesia: Kurma
íslenska: Döðlupálmi
italiano: Palma da datteri
日本語: ナツメヤシ
lietuvių: Datulinis finikas
മലയാളം: ഈന്തപ്പന
Bahasa Melayu: Pokok kurma
Nederlands: Dadelpalm
norsk: Daddelpalme
polski: Daktylowiec właściwy
português: Tamareira
srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски: Datulja
slovenščina: Pravi datljevec
српски / srpski: Датула
svenska: Dadelpalm
తెలుగు: ఖర్జూరం
ไทย: อินทผลัม
Türkçe: Hurma
walon: Pålmî ås dates
ייִדיש: טײטלבױם
中文: 海枣

Phoenix dactylifera, commonly known as date or date palm,[2] is a flowering plant species in the palm family, Arecaceae, cultivated for its edible sweet fruit called dates. The species is widely cultivated across northern Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia, and is naturalized in many tropical and subtropical regions worldwide.[3][4][5] P. dactylifera is the type species of genus Phoenix, which contains 12–19 species of wild date palms.[6]

Date trees typically reach about 21–23 metres (69–75 ft) in height,[7] growing singly or forming a clump with several stems from a single root system. Date fruits (dates) are oval-cylindrical, 3 to 7 centimetres (1 to 3 in) long, and about 2.5 centimetres (1 in) in diameter, with colour ranging from bright red to bright yellow, depending on variety. Containing 61–68 percent sugar by mass when dried,[8] dates are very sweet and are enjoyed as desserts on their own or within confections.

Dates have been cultivated in the Middle East and the Indus Valley for thousands of years. There is archaeological evidence of date cultivation in Arabia from the 6th millennium BCE. The total annual world production of dates amounts to 8.5 million metric tons, countries of the Middle East and North Africa being the largest producers and consumers.[9]

Etymology

The species name dactylifera 'date-bearing' comes from the Greek words daktylos (δάκτυλος), which means 'date' (also 'finger'),[10] and fero (φέρω), which means 'I bear'.[11] The fruit is known as a date.[12] The fruit's English name (through Old French), as well as the Latin both come from the Greek word for 'finger', δάκτυλος,[10] because of the fruit's elongated shape.
History

The place of origin of date palm is uncertain because of long cultivation. According to some sources it probably originated from the Fertile Crescent region straddling Egypt and Mesopotamia[6] while others state that they are native to the Persian Gulf area or even western India.[13] Fossil records show that the date palm has existed for at least 50 million years.[14]

Dates have been a staple food of the Middle East and the Indus Valley for thousands of years, and there is archaeological evidence of date cultivation in Mehrgarh, a Neolithic civilization in western Pakistan, around 7000 BCE[15] and in eastern Arabia between 5530 and 5320 calBC.[16] Dates have been cultivated since ancient times from Mesopotamia to prehistoric Egypt. The ancient Egyptians used the fruits to make date wine and ate dates at harvest. Evidence of cultivation is continually found throughout later civilizations in the Indus Valley, including the Harappan period from 2600 to 1900 BCE.[15]

In Ancient Rome the palm fronds used in triumphal processions to symbolize victory were most likely those of P. dactylifera.[17] The date palm was a popular garden plant in Roman peristyle gardens, though it would not bear fruit in the more temperate climate of Italy.[18] It is recognizable in frescoes from Pompeii and elsewhere in Italy, including a garden scene from the House of the Wedding of Alexander.[19] In later times, traders spread dates around southwest Asia, northern Africa, and Spain. Dates were introduced into Mexico and California by the Spaniards in 1765, around Mission San Ignacio.

One cultivar, the Judean date palm, is renowned for its long-lived orthodox seed, which successfully sprouted after accidental storage for 2,000 years.[20] The upper survival time limit of properly stored seeds remains unknown.[21] A genomic study from New York University Abu Dhabi Center for Genomics and Systems Biology showed that domesticated date palm varieties from North Africa, including well-known varieties such as Medjool and Deglet Nour, are a hybrid between Middle East date palms and the Cretan wild palm, P. theophrasti. Date palms appear in the archaeological record in North Africa about 2,800 years ago, suggesting that the hybrid was spread by the Minoans or Phoenicians.[22]
Description
Date fruit clumps

Date trees typically reach about 21–23 metres (69–75 ft) in height,[7] growing singly or forming a clump with several stems from a single root system. The leaves are 4–6 metres (13–20 ft) long, with spines on the petiole, and pinnate, with about 150 leaflets. The leaflets are 30 cm (12 in) long and 2 cm (1 in) wide. The full span of the crown ranges from 6–10 m (20–33 ft).

The date palm is dioecious, having separate male and female plants. They can be easily grown from seed, but only 50% of seedlings will be female and hence fruit bearing, and dates from seedling plants are often smaller and of poorer quality. Most commercial plantations thus use cuttings of heavily cropping cultivars. Plants grown from cuttings will fruit 2–3 years earlier than seedling plants.
Phoenix dactylifera trunk section. As with other members of the palm family, date palms do not produce tree rings.

Dates are naturally wind pollinated, but in both traditional oasis horticulture and in the modern commercial orchards they are entirely pollinated manually. Natural pollination occurs with about an equal number of male and female plants. However, with assistance, one male can pollinate up to 100 females. Since the males are of value only as pollinators, this allows the growers to use their resources for many more fruit-producing female plants. Some growers do not even maintain any male plants, as male flowers become available at local markets at pollination time. Manual pollination is done by skilled labourers on ladders, or by use of a wind machine. In some areas such as Iraq the pollinator climbs the tree using a special climbing tool that wraps around the tree trunk and the climber's back (called تبلية in Arabic) to keep him attached to the trunk while climbing.

Date fruits are oval-cylindrical, 3–7 cm (1–3 in) long, and 2–3 cm (3⁄4–1+1⁄4 in) diameter, and when ripe, range from bright red to bright yellow in colour, depending on variety. Dates contain a single stone about 2–2.5 cm (3⁄4–1 in) long and 6–8 mm (1⁄4–5⁄16 in) thick. Three main cultivar groups of date exist: soft (e.g. 'Barhee', 'Halawy', 'Khadrawy', 'Medjool'); semi-dry (e.g. 'Dayri', 'Deglet Nour', 'Zahdi'), and dry (e.g. 'Thoory'). The type of fruit depends on the glucose, fructose, and sucrose content.
Genome
Germination of date palm

In 2009, a team of researchers at the Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar published a draft version of the date palm genome (Khalas variety).[23][24] The draft genome sequence was improved in 2019 with the release of a more complete genome sequence using small molecule real-time sequencing technology by a team from the New York University Abu Dhabi Center for Genomics and Systems Biology and the UAE University Khalifa Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology in the United Arab Emirates. With the release of this improved genome assembly, the UAE researchers were able to map genes for fruit color and sugar content.[25] The NYU Abu Dhabi researchers had also re-sequenced the genomes of several date varieties to develop the first single nucleotide polymorphism map of the date palm genome in 2015.[26]
Cultivation
Date production – 2019
(tonnes)
Egypt 1,603,762
Saudi Arabia 1,539,756
Iran 1,307,908
Algeria 1,136,025
Iraq 639,315
Pakistan 483,071
Sudan 438,700
World 9,075,446
Source:
UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)[9]

Dates are a traditional crop throughout the Middle East and north Africa. Dates (especially Medjool and Deglet Nour) are also cultivated in the southwestern United States, and in Sonora and Baja California in Mexico.

Date palms can take 4 to 8 years after planting before they will bear fruit, and start producing viable yields for commercial harvest between 7 and 10 years. Mature date palms can produce 70–140 kg (150–300 lb)[27][28] of dates per harvest season. They do not all ripen at the same time so several harvests are required. To obtain fruit of marketable quality, the bunches of dates must be thinned and bagged or covered before ripening so that the remaining fruits grow larger and are protected from weather and animals, such as birds, that also like to eat them.

Date palms require well-drained deep sandy loam soils with a pH of 8–11 (alkaline). The soil should have the ability to hold moisture and also be free of calcium carbonate.[29]

An article on date palm tree cultivation is contained in Ibn al-'Awwam's 12th-century agricultural work, Book on Agriculture.[30]
Production

In 2019, world production of dates was 9 million tonnes, led by Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Algeria with 61% of the world total combined (table).
Cultivars
Main article: List of date cultivars
Mazafati dates

A large number of date cultivars and varieties emerged through history of its cultivation, but the exact number is difficult to assess. Hussain and El-Zeid[31] (1975) have reported 400 varieties, while Nixon[32] (1954) named around 250. Most of those are limited to a particular region, and only a few dozen have attained broader commercial importance. The most renowned cultivars worldwide include Deglet Noor, originally of Algeria; Yahidi and Hallawi of Iraq; Medjool of Morocco; Mazafati of Iran.[33]
Diseases and pests
Main article: List of date palm diseases

A major palm pest, the red palm beetle (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus), currently poses a significant threat to date production in parts of the Middle East as well as to iconic landscape specimens throughout the Mediterranean world. Pinhas et al. 2008 uses piezoelectric sensors and speech recognition technology to detect R. ferrugineus. They achieved a 98% detection ratio on young P. dactylifera in very controlled laboratory conditions.[34]

In the 1920s, eleven healthy Medjool palms were transferred from Morocco to the United States where they were tended by members of the Chemehuevi tribe[which?] in a remote region of Nevada. Nine of these survived and in 1935, cultivars were transferred to the "U.S. Date Garden" in Indio, California. Eventually this stock was reintroduced to Africa and led to the U.S. production of dates in Yuma, Arizona, and Bard, California.[35]
Invasive species

Not all cities and countries have benefited with the date palms resilience and ease of growth. It has made the invasive species list in some parts of the United States, Canada and Australia[36][37][38] but these references are to the related but inedible Canary Island Date Palm (Phoenix canariensis).

Uses
Date palm stump showing the fibrous structure
Fruits
A fresh date seller in Cairo, 1955

Dry or soft dates are eaten out-of-hand, or may be pitted and stuffed with fillings such as almonds, walnuts, pecans, candied orange and lemon peel, tahini, marzipan or cream cheese. Pitted dates are also referred to as stoned dates. Partially dried pitted dates may be glazed with glucose syrup for use as a snack food. Dates can also be chopped and used in a range of sweet and savory dishes, from tajines (tagines) in Morocco to puddings, ka'ak (types of Arab cookies) and other dessert items. Date nut bread, a type of cake, is very popular in the United States, especially around holidays. Dates are also processed into cubes, paste called 'ajwa, spread, date syrup or "honey" called "dibs" or rub in Libya, powder (date sugar), vinegar or alcohol. Vinegar made from dates was a traditional product of the Middle East.[39][40] Recent innovations include chocolate-covered dates and products such as sparkling date juice, used in some Islamic countries as a non-alcoholic version of champagne, for special occasions and religious times such as Ramadan. When Muslims break fast in the evening meal of Ramadan, it is traditional to eat a date first.

Reflecting the maritime trading heritage of Britain, imported chopped dates are added to, or form the main basis of a variety of traditional dessert recipes including sticky toffee pudding, Christmas pudding and date and walnut loaf. They are particularly available to eat whole at Christmas time. Dates are one of the ingredients of HP Sauce, a popular British condiment.

In Southeast Spain (where a large date plantation exists including UNESCO-protected Palmeral of Elche) dates (usually pitted with fried almond) are served wrapped in bacon and shallow fried. In Israel date syrup, termed silan, is used while cooking chicken and also for sweets and desserts, and as a honey substitute. Dates are one of the ingredients of jallab, a Middle-Eastern fruit syrup. In Pakistan, a viscous, thick syrup made from the ripe fruits is used as a coating for leather bags and pipes to prevent leaking.
Antique date forks in rack
Date forks

In the past, sticky dates were served using specialized small forks having two metal tines, called daddelgaffel in Scandinavia.[41] Some designs were patented.[42] These have generally been replaced by an inexpensive pale-colored knobbled plastic fork that resembles a date branch (example[43]), which is traditionally included with numerous brands of prepackaged trays of dates (example), though this practice has declined in response to increased use of resealable packaging and calls for fewer single-use plastics.
Other parts
Seeds

Date seeds are soaked and ground up for animal feed. Their oil is suitable for use in cosmetics and dermatological applications. The oil contains lauric acid (36%) and oleic acid (41%). Date palm seeds contain 0.56–5.4% lauric acid. They can also be processed chemically as a source of oxalic acid. Date seeds are also ground and used in the manner of coffee beans, or as an additive to coffee. Experimental studies have shown that feeding mice with the aqueous extract of date pits exhibit anti-genotoxic effects and reduce DNA damage induced by N-nitroso-N-methylurea.[44]
Fruit clusters

Stripped fruit clusters are used as brooms. Recently, the floral stalks have been found to be of ornamental value in households.[45]
Sap
Sweet sap tapped from date palm in West Bengal, India

Apart from P. dactylifera, wild date palms such as Phoenix sylvestris and Phoenix reclinata, depending on the region, can be also tapped for sap.
Leaves

Date palm leaves are used for Palm Sunday in the Christian religion. In North Africa, they are commonly used for making huts. Mature leaves are also made into mats, screens, baskets, and fans. Processed leaves can be used for insulating board. Dried leaf petioles are a source of cellulose pulp, used for walking sticks, brooms, fishing floats, and fuel. Leaf sheaths are prized for their scent, and fibre from them is also used for rope, coarse cloth, and large hats. The leaves are used as a lulav in the Jewish holiday of Sukkot.[46] They are also commonly used as the s'chach in the construction of a sukkah.[47]

Young date leaves are cooked and eaten as a vegetable, as is the terminal bud or heart, though its removal kills the palm. The finely ground seeds are mixed with flour to make bread in times of scarcity. The flowers of the date palm are also edible. Traditionally the female flowers are the most available for sale and weigh 300–400 grams (10+1⁄2–14 oz). The flower buds are used in salad or ground with dried fish to make a condiment for bread.

Dates, Deglet Noor

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	1,180 kJ (280 kcal)
Carbohydrates	75 g
Sugars	63 g
Dietary fiber	8 g
Fat	0.4 g
Protein	2.4 g
Vitamins	Quantity %DV†
Vitamin A equiv. beta-Carotene lutein zeaxanthin	0% 6 μg 75 μg
Vitamin A	10 IU
Thiamine (B1)	5% 0.052 mg
Riboflavin (B2)	6% 0.066 mg
Niacin (B3)	8% 1.274 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)	12% 0.589 mg
Vitamin B6	13% 0.165 mg
Folate (B9)	5% 19 μg
Vitamin C	0% 0.4 mg
Vitamin E	0% 0.05 mg
Vitamin K	3% 2.7 μg
Minerals	Quantity %DV†
Calcium	4% 39 mg
Iron	8% 1.02 mg
Magnesium	12% 43 mg
Manganese	12% 0.262 mg
Phosphorus	9% 62 mg
Potassium	14% 656 mg
Sodium	0% 2 mg
Zinc	3% 0.29 mg
Other constituents	Quantity
Water	20.5 g
Link to USDA Database entry
Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams IU = International units

Nutrition

Dates are 21% water, 75% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and less than 1% fat (table). In a 100-gram (3+1⁄2 oz) reference amount, dates supply 1,180 kilojoules (280 kilocalories) of food energy and are a moderate source (10-19% of the Daily Value) of pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, and the dietary minerals magnesium, manganese, and potassium, with other micronutrients in low amounts (table).

A 2011 study found that the glycemic index (GI) for five different varieties of date had a range of 46–55,[48] while a 2002 report showed GI values of 31–50, results indicating dates are a relatively low GI food source.[49]
Phytochemicals

The caffeic acid glycoside 3-O-caffeoylshikimic acid (also known as dactylifric acid) and its isomers, are enzymic browning substrates found in dates.[50]
In culture
Further information: Palm branch (symbol)

Dates are mentioned more than 50 times in the Bible and 20 times in the Qur'an.

Many Jewish scholars believe that the "honey" reference in the Bible to "a land flowing with milk and honey" (Exodus chapter 3) is actually a reference to date "honey", and not honey from bees.[51]

In Islamic culture, dates and yogurt or milk are traditionally the first foods consumed for Iftar after the sun has set during Ramadan.
Symbolism
See also: Plants in Islam and Lulav

Date palms holds great significance in Abrahamic religions. The tree was heavily cultivated as a food source in ancient Israel where Judaism and subsequently Christianity developed.[52]

In the Quran, Allah instructs Maryām (the Virgin Mary) to eat dates during labour pains when she gives birth to Isa (Jesus);[53] and, similarly, they are recommended to pregnant women.[54]

In the Torah, palm trees are referenced as symbols of prosperity and triumph.[55] In Psalm 92:12 "The righteous shall flourish like the palm tree". Palm branches occurred as iconography in sculpture ornamenting the Second Jewish Temple in Jerusalem, on Jewish coins, and in the sculpture of synagogues. They are also used as ornamentation in the Feast of the Tabernacles.[52] Date palms are one of the seven species of native Israeli plants revered in Judaism.[56] The date palm has historically been considered a symbol of Judea and the Jewish people.[57]
Gallery

Dried date, peach, and apricot from Lahun, Fayum, Egypt. Late Middle Kingdom

Date Palm in the Coat of arms of Saudi Arabia

Fresh dates, clockwise from top right: crunchy, crunchy opened, soft out of skin, soft

Date seller in the old souq in Kuwait City

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The Quran, Chapter 19 - verses 22-25, retrieved on Feb. 28 2015, So she [Virgin Mary] conceived him, and she retired with him to a remote place. And the pains of childbirth drove her to the trunk of a palm tree. she cried (in her anguish): 'Ah! would that I had died before this! would that I had been a thing forgotten and out of sight!' But (a voice) cried to her from beneath the (palm-tree): 'Grieve not! for thy Lord hath provided a rivulet beneath thee; And shake towards thyself the trunk of the palm-tree; it will let fall fresh ripe dates upon thee.'
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Psalm 92.12
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