Apalone mutica

Apalone mutica (*)

Superregnum: Eukaryota
Regnum: Animalia
Subregnum: Eumetazoa
Cladus: Bilateria
Cladus: Nephrozoa
Superphylum: Deuterostomia
Phylum: Chordata
Cladus: Craniata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Infraphylum: Gnathostomata
Superclassis: Tetrapoda
Cladus: Reptiliomorpha
Cladus: Amniota
Classis: Reptilia
Cladus: Eureptilia
Cladus: Romeriida
Subclassis: Diapsida
Cladus: Sauria
Cladus: Archelosauria
Division: Pan-Testudines
Division: Testudinata
Ordo: Testudines
Subordo: Cryptodira
Superfamilia: Trionychoidea

Familia: Trionychidae
Subfamilia: Trionychinae
Genus: Apalone
Species: Apalone mutica

The smooth softshell turtle (Apalone mutica) is a species of softshell turtle of the family Trionychidae. The species is endemic to North America.

Geographic range

A. mutica is native to North America. It is distributed throughout the central and southcentral United States as its geographic range extends from western Pennsylvania to New Mexico and south to the Florida panhandle. Smooth softshells turtles inhabit the Mississippi River drainage from Louisiana up to North Dakota and Pennsylvania, as well as the Colorado, Brazos, Sabine, and Pearl, Alabama and Escambia river systems.[1] Two subspecies of A. mutica have been identified. The midland smooth softshell, Apalone mutica mutica, is found throughout the central United States. The other subspecies, Apalone mutica calvata, is found ranging from Louisiana to the panhandle of Florida.[4]
Habitat

Both subspecies of A. mutica are typically found in medium to large unpolluted rivers with moderate to fast currents, but are also found in standing water bodies like lakes, ponds and marshes. They prefer water with sand or mud bottoms, without rocky areas or dense vegetation. Sandbanks must also be present.[1]
Description

The smooth softshell turtle has an anapsid skull. This kind of skull is present among the earliest reptiles and is retained by turtles today. The anapsid skull lacks openings behind the orbits.[5] The smooth softshell turtle has a smooth, flexible and leather like carapace that is covered by skin instead of the hard scutes commonly observed in other turtle species.[6] The plastron is light (white or gray) with no markings, and the underlying bones are visible.[7] Smooth softshell turtles have a tubular snout with round nostrils.[8]
Sexual dimorphism

There is sexual dimorphism between females and males of A. mutica as females are larger than males. A female has a carapace length of 16.5–35.6 cm (6.5–14.0 in) compared to a carapace length of 11.4–17.8 cm (4.5–7.0 in) for males.[6] Additionally, the female smooth softshell turtle is usually brown or olive-colored with irregular dark brown blotches, while the carapace of males and juveniles is a brown or grayish color with dark dots or dashes.[1] Sexual dimorphism is also apparent in the size of the tails and claws. Males have thicker tails than females, but females have longer hind claws than males.[8]
Similar species

Smooth softshell turtles may be easily confused with the spiny softshell turtle (Apalone spinifera), as the differences between the two species are subtle. Spiny softshell turtles have a rough carapace with spines along the front edge while, as the name implies, smooth softshell turtles lack such spines.[9] Additionally, the white chin and throat of the smooth softshell are unmarked, compared to the splotchy chin and throat of the spiny softshell.[9] A. mutica is the only species of North American softshell with round nostrils; all other species have ridges on the nasal septum which make the nostrils C-shaped.[10]
Diet

Smooth softshell turtles are mostly carnivorous, eating aquatic insects, crayfish, fish and amphibians.[11] Although primarily carnivorous, they sometimes resort to eating vegetation such as algae, vegetables, fruits, and nuts.[7]
Reproduction

Breeding of the smooth softshell turtle occurs from April to June. The mating system utilized by these turtles is polygyny, meaning that males will mate with more than one female. Males actively seek out females by approaching other adults. If the other party is male or a non-receptive female, aggression may be displayed. However, if the other party is a receptive female, she remains passive to the advancements of the males. Copulation usually occurs in deep pools as the male mounts the female.[8] The nesting period is usually from May to July as females only lay eggs once a year.[7] During this period, adult females of A. mutica lay clutches of 3 to 28 eggs not more than 100 m (330 ft) from water in sandy areas.[12] Eggs generally hatch 8 to 12 weeks later with the highest frequency of hatching being between August and September. Hatchlings average a weight of 5.4 g (0.19 oz) and have a carapace length of 4 cm (1.6 in). Male smooth softshell turtles become sexually mature during their fourth year and females become sexually mature during their ninth year.[4]

Female turtles offer prenatal care for their offspring. They produce high levels of non-polar lipids that provide energy for their growing embryos.[13] This energy is more than enough to keep the embryos alive. The high concentration of lipids also offer an advantage at birth as it acts as a food source until they hatchlings become mature enough to commence feeding. This type of care is also known as parental investment in embryogenesis. However, after hatching no physical parental care is given.[13]
Life history

Smooth softshell turtles are the most aquatic of the softshell turtles as they are often referred to as "swimmers".[14] They are able to stay underwater for extended periods of time due to their long neck and their snout. They often bury themselves in the sand substrate at the bottom of the river or pool just deep enough so that their snout barely reaches the surface.[7] Additionally, the skin covering the shell allows for a high rate of gas exchange. This enables the turtles to stay submerged for a long period of time. In this position, they often wait for prey to pass and utilize their long neck to capture their prey.[6]

These turtles hibernate in the months of October to March. They hibernate by burying themselves in substrate underwater. After emerging from hibernation, these turtles are often found on land basking in the sun. Given that their shell is a soft shell, they are unable to stay in the sun for extended periods of time.[14] When basking, they are wary of their surroundings and if any threat presents itself, they are quick to abandon their basking site in seek of safety. Their agility on land and water make them a hard prey for predators such as raccoons, humans, alligators and snapping turtles.[8] They seek shelter from these threats by diving and concealing themselves in mud.[8]
Conservation status

Currently, the smooth softshell turtle is considered a species of least conservation concern. However, the species is still facing some wide-ranged threats.[1] These threats include habitat degradation, harvesting for food, and an increase in human disturbances at nesting sites. Additionally, due to their skin's high rate of gas exchange, they are very susceptible to polluted waters.[6] As a result of all of these factors, the smooth softshell turtle has been listed as a species of special concern in Minnesota and Wisconsin.[6][15]
Subspecies

Two subspecies are recognized, including the nominotypical subspecies.[16]

Apalone mutica calvata (Webb, 1959)
Apalone mutica mutica (Lesueur, 1827)

Nota bene: A trinomial authority in parentheses indicates that the subspecies was originally described in a genus other than Apalone.
Sympatric species

Apalone mutica is sympatric with the spiny softshell turtle (Apalone spinifera) over much of its range.[17]
References

van Dijk, P.P. (2016) [errata version of 2011 assessment]. "Apalone mutica". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2011: e.T165596A97398190. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-1.RLTS.T165596A6064798.en. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
"Apalone mutica ". Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS). ITIS.gov
Fritz, Uwe; Havaš, Peter (2007). "Checklist of Chelonians of the World" (PDF). Vertebrate Zoology. 57 (2): 306. ISSN 1864-5755. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-12-17. Retrieved 29 May 2012.
"Apalone mutica (Smooth Softshelled Turtle)".
Downs and Grinnell (2017). Vertebrate Zoology Biology 242 Laboratory Instructions.
"Apalone mutica : Smooth Softshell | Rare Species Guide".
"Apalone mutica (Smooth Softshelled Turtle)".
Ernst C, Lovich J (2009). Turtles of the United States and Canada. Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Oldfield B, Moriarty JJ (1994). Amphibians and Reptiles Native to Minnesota. Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press. 237 pp.
Powell R, Conant R, Collins JT (2016). Peterson Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America, Fourth Edition. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. xiv + 494 pp. ISBN 978-0-544-12997-9. (Apolone mutica, p. 231 + Plates 20, 22 + Figure 85 on p. 186).
"Apalone mutica mutica ". Ohio Department of Natural Resources. ohiodnr.gov
DNr.wi.gov Archived June 16, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
Nagle, Roy D., et al. (2003). "Parental investment, embryo growth, and hatchling lipid reserves in softshell turtles (Apalone mutica) from Arkansas." Herpetologica 59 (2): 145-154.
"Smooth Softshell Turtle - Encyclopedia of Life".
"Smooth Softshell (Apalone mutica)". dnr.wi.gov. Retrieved 2017-10-05.
"Apalone mutica ". The Reptile Database. www.reptile-database.org.

Williams TA, Christiansen JL (1981). "The Niches of Two Sympatric Turtles, Trionyx muticus and Trionyx spiniferus, in Iowa". Journal of Herpetology 15 (3): 303-308. JSTOR.org