Superregnum: Eukaryota
Regnum: Animalia
Subregnum: Eumetazoa
Cladus: Bilateria
Cladus: Nephrozoa
Superphylum: Deuterostomia
Phylum: Chordata
Cladus: Craniata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Infraphylum: Gnathostomata
Superclassis: Tetrapoda
Cladus: Reptiliomorpha
Cladus: Amniota
Classis: Reptilia
Cladus: Eureptilia
Cladus: Romeriida
Subclassis: Diapsida
Cladus: Sauria
Infraclassis: Archosauromorpha
Cladus: Crurotarsi
Divisio: Archosauria
Subsectio: Ornithodira
Subtaxon: Dinosauromorpha
Cladus: Dinosauria
Ordo: Saurischia
Cladus: Theropoda
Cladus: Neotheropoda
Infraclassis: Aves
Ordo: Passeriformes
Subordo: Passeri
Infraordo: Passerida
Superfamilia: Passeroidea
Familia: Passerellidae
Genus: Zonotrichia
Species Zonotrichia albicollis
Name
Zonotrichia albicollis (Gmelin, 1789)
Synonyms
Fringilla albicollis (protonym)
References
Systema Naturae per Regna Tria Naturae 1 (2): 921.
Vernacular names
Boarisch: Weisskejåmmer
brezhoneg: Brean jave gwenn
català: Pardal gorjablanc
čeština: Strnadec bělohrdlý
Cymraeg: Llwyd gyddfwyn
dansk: Hvidstrubet Spurv
Deutsch: Weißkehlammer
English: White-throated Sparrow
Esperanto: Blankgorĝa emberizo
español: Chingolo Gorjiblanco
eesti: Valgekurk-sidrik
suomi: Valkokurkkusirkku
føroyskt: Øshvítur spurvur
français: Bruant à gorge blanche
Gaeilge: Gealbhan Píbgheal
עברית: גבתונית לבנת־גרון
magyar: Fehértorkú verébsármány
íslenska: Hörputittlingur
italiano: Passero golabianca
日本語: ノドジロシトド
lietuvių: Baltagurklė zonotrichija
Nederlands: Witkeelgors
norsk: Hvitstrupespurv
oj: ᑲᑭᐊ.ᔑᑭᑭᔑᑭ
polski: Pasówka białogardła
português: Escrevedeira-de-garganta-branca
русский: Белошейная зонотрихия
slovenčina: Strnádlik bielohrdlý
slovenščina: Belogrli vrabonad
svenska: Vitstrupig sparv
Türkçe: Ak boğazlı çinte
українська: Білогорлий горобець
中文: 白喉带鹀
The white-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis) is a passerine bird of the New World sparrow family Passerellidae.
Etymology
The genus name Zonotrichia is from Ancient Greek zone, "band", and thrix, trikhos, "hair". The specific albicollis is from Latin albus, white, and collum, "neck".[2]
Description
The white-throated sparrow is a passerine bird of the New World sparrow family Passerellidae. It measures 15 to 19 cm (5.9 to 7.5 in) in length with a wingspan of 23 cm (9.1 in). Typical weight is 22 to 32 g (0.78 to 1.13 oz), with an average of 26 g (0.92 oz).[3][4] Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 6.3 to 7.9 cm (2.5 to 3.1 in), the tail is 6.8 to 7.7 cm (2.7 to 3.0 in), the bill is 1 to 1.2 cm (0.39 to 0.47 in) and the tarsus is 2.2 to 2.4 cm (0.87 to 0.94 in).[5] They are similar in appearance to the white-crowned sparrow, but with white throat markings and yellow lores.
There are two adult plumage variations known as the tan-striped and white-striped forms. On the white-striped form the crown is black with a white central stripe. The supercilium is white as well. The auriculars are gray with the upper edge forming a black eye line.[3]
On the tan form, the crown is dark brown with a tan central stripe. The supercilium is tan as well. The auriculars are gray/light brown with the upper edge forming a brown eye line. Both variations feature dark eyes, a white throat, yellow lores and gray bill.[3] There is variation and some individuals may show dark lateral stripes of each side of the throat.
They almost always pair with the opposite color morph for breeding. The two color morphs occur in approximately equal numbers. Both male and female white-striped birds are more aggressive than tan-striped birds during the breeding season.[6][7] The aggression is because of high level of estrogen receptor alpha in white-striped birds.[8]
The breast has gray/tan streaks and the streaks continue down the flanks but the belly is generally light gray. The wings are rufous with two distinct white wing bars. Sexes are morphologically similar.[3]
Behavior
Reproduction
White-throated sparrows breed in central Canada and New England. They nest either on the ground under shrubs or low in trees in deciduous or mixed forest areas and lay three to five brown-marked blue or green-white eggs.
The tan and white morphs of white-throated sparrows use different reproductive strategies. Tan males invest in parental care and guard their mates from others searching for extra pair copulations (EPCs). White males invest in securing additional mates and EPCs through song advertisement and intruding into neighboring territory. Female morphs have similar differences, where tan females invest in parental care and white females solicit EPCs and engage in brood parasitism, leaving their eggs in another's nest to be raised and fed. Mating with the opposite morphs and using alternative reproductive strategies helps maintain competitive equilibrium.[9]
Wintering and migration
In winter, this species migrates to the southern and eastern United States. They are differential migrants with females migrating farther, increasing the proportion of females at lower latitudes in the Atlantic flyway. Females are smaller so they would not perform as optimally at colder, higher latitudes, and females avoid competition with the dominant males of the winter hierarchies by migrating farther. There is also no benefit for females to be among the first to return after winter, so migrating farther allows the males to return and establish territory a few weeks before their arrival.[10] It stays year round in the Atlantic provinces of Canada. This bird is a rare vagrant to western Europe. Alongside some other species such as the cardinal, dark-eyed junco, song sparrow and chickadees, this species ranks among the most abundant native birds during winter in eastern North America.[11]
Despite a high level of con-specific rivalry within white-throated sparrows, this species is often dominated by other seed-eating winter residents, even those that are no larger than itself like the song sparrow, and thus may endure high levels of predation while foraging since restricted to sub-optimal sites at times by competition.[12] Not to mention numerous mammalian carnivores, at least ten avian predators often hunt them and they are among the most regular prey species for some smaller raptors, i.e. the sharp-shinned hawk and eastern screech-owl.[13][14]
Diet
These birds forage on the ground under or near thickets or in low vegetation. They mainly eat seeds, insects and berries, and are attracted to bird feeders.
White-throated sparrows produce song laterally through the left side of their syrinx, and control of their syrinx involves both their central and peripheral nervous systems. After damage to motor control of the left side of the syrinx, individuals were still able to produce sound but their song pattern was distorted, indicating the left side chiefly controls their production of song.[15] There are at least two distinct songs sung by this species. One consists of an initial note, followed by three or so repeated notes at an interval of about a major third above. The second song consists of an initial note, a second a whole step lower, and a third note, repeated two or three times, about a minor third below that. This second song is commonly described by use of mnemonics with the cadence of "Po-or Sam Peabody, Peabody, Peabody" (or "O-oh sweet Canada, Canada, Canada") The rhythm is very regular, and the timbre could be described as pinched. These musical intervals are only approximate; to a human ear the song often sounds out of tune. The repeated note will often change in pitch very slightly, contributing to this effect.
As reported by National Geographic in 2020, ornithologists have discovered a new song for the white-throated sparrow. This bird song begins in the same way as the typical song, but with a subtle difference: the repeating triplets, as in "Peabody", become doublets, as in "Cherry", ending with a final single tone. This new tune began to appear in British Columbia, Canada, and then spread east.[16]
The white-throated sparrow also has at least two calls, in addition to its song.
Footnotes
BirdLife International (2012). "Zonotrichia albicollis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2012. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London, United Kingdom: Christopher Helm. pp. 38, 414. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
Sibley, David A. (2000). National Audubon Society The Sibley Field Guide to Birds. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 494. ISBN 0-679-45122-6.
Wolfson, Albert (1954). "Body Weight and Fat Deposition in Captive White-Throated Sparrows in Relation to the Mechanics of Migration". The Wilson Bulletin. 66 (2): 112–118. JSTOR 4158288.
Byers, Clive; Olsson, Urban (1995). Sparrows and Buntings: A Guide to the Sparrows and Buntings of North America and the World. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0395738733.
GrrlScientist (26 May 2011). "Sparrows show us a new way to have sexes". The Guardian. Retrieved 2015-06-29.
Arnold, Carrie (24 November 2016). "The sparrow with four sexes". Nature. 539 (7630): 482–484. doi:10.1038/539482a. PMID 27882995. S2CID 4457436.
"Study shows how a single gene drives aggression in wild songbird". phys.org. Retrieved 2020-08-30.
Tuttle, Elaina (1 May 2003). "Alternative reproductive strategies in the white-throated sparrow: behavioral and genetic evidence". Behavioral Ecology. 14 (3): 425–432. doi:10.1093/beheco/14.3.425.
Jenkins, Kendell; Cristol, Daniel (1 April 2002). "Evidence of Differential Migration by Sex in White-Throated Sparrows (Zonotrichia Albicollis)". The Auk. 119 (2): 539–543. doi:10.1093/auk/119.2.539.
Bock, C. E.; Prickles, R. E. (1983). "Range size and local abundance of some North American songbirds: a positive correlation". The American Naturalist. 122 (2): 295–299. doi:10.1086/284136. JSTOR 2461236. S2CID 84017778.
Piper, W. H. (1990). "Exposure to predators and access to food in wintering white-throated sparrows Zonotrichia albicollis". Behaviour. 112 (3/4): 284–298. doi:10.1163/156853990x00248. JSTOR 4534842.
Roth, T. C., II; Lima, S. L. (2007). "The predatory behavior of wintering Accipiter hawks: temporal patterns in activity of predators and prey". Oecologia. 152 (1): 169–178. Bibcode:2007Oecol.152..169R. doi:10.1007/s00442-006-0638-2. PMID 17216210. S2CID 6114288.
VanCamp, L. F.; Henry, C. J. (1975). "The screech owl: its life history and population ecology in northern Ohio". North American Fauna. 71 (75): 1–65. doi:10.3996/nafa.71.0001. hdl:2027/uc1.aa0006758312.
Lemon, Robert (September 1973). "Nervous control of the syrinx in White‐throated sparrows (Zonotrichia albicollis)". Journal of Zoology. 171 (1): 131–140. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1973.tb07520.x.
Sparrows are singing a new song, in a rapid, unprecedented shift. Wetzel, Corryn.National Geographic, July 2, 2020. Retrieved 5 July 2020.
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