Falco moluccensis

Life-forms

Superregnum: Eukaryota
Cladus: Unikonta
Cladus: Opisthokonta
Cladus: Holozoa
Regnum: Animalia
Subregnum: Eumetazoa
Cladus: Bilateria
Cladus: Nephrozoa
Superphylum: Deuterostomia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Infraphylum: Gnathostomata
Megaclassis: Osteichthyes
Cladus: Sarcopterygii
Cladus: Rhipidistia
Cladus: Tetrapodomorpha
Cladus: Eotetrapodiformes
Cladus: Elpistostegalia
Superclassis: Tetrapoda
Cladus: Reptiliomorpha
Cladus: Amniota
Classis: Reptilia
Cladus: Eureptilia
Cladus: Romeriida
Subclassis: Diapsida
Cladus: Sauria
Infraclassis: Archosauromorpha
Cladus: Crurotarsi
Divisio: Archosauria
Cladus: Avemetatarsalia
Cladus: Ornithodira
Subtaxon: Dinosauromorpha
Cladus: Dinosauriformes
Cladus: Dracohors
Cladus: Dinosauria
Cladus: Saurischia
Cladus: Eusaurischia
Subordo: Theropoda
Cladus: Neotheropoda
Cladus: Averostra
Cladus: Tetanurae
Cladus: Avetheropoda
Cladus: Coelurosauria
Cladus: Tyrannoraptora
Cladus: Maniraptoromorpha
Cladus: Maniraptoriformes
Cladus: Maniraptora
Cladus: Pennaraptora
Cladus: Paraves
Cladus: Eumaniraptora
Cladus: Avialae
Infraclassis: Aves
Cladus: Avebrevicauda
Cladus: Pygostylia
Cladus: Ornithothoraces
Cladus: Ornithuromorpha
Cladus: Carinatae
Parvclassis: Neornithes
Cohors: Neognathae
Cladus: Neoaves
Cladus: Telluraves
Cladus: Australaves
Ordo: Falconiformes

Familia: Falconidae
Subfamilia: Falconinae
Genus: Falco
Species: Falco moluccensis
Subspecies: F. m. jungei - F. m. microbalia - F. m. moluccensis
Name

Falco moluccensis (Bonaparte, 1850)

Original combination: Tinnunculus moluccensis

References

Conspectus generum avium 1 p.27

Vernacular names
čeština: Poštolka molucká
English: Spotted Kestrel
suomi: Sundantuulihaukka
français: Crécerelle des Moluques
Türkçe: Benekli kerkenez

The spotted kestrel (Falco moluccensis) is also known as the Moluccan kestrel.[2]
Taxonomy

Little is known about the spotted kestrel, although it is thought to be closely related to the Nankeen Kestrel (Falco cenchroides). Both species are considered members of the Falco tinnunculus group.[2]
Distribution and Habitat

The spotted kestrel are distributed throughout Indonesia.[2]

Spread through Wallacea and Java, the spotted kestrel inhabits grasslands with scattered trees, lightly wooded cultivation, and the edges of primary and tall secondary forest. Along logging roads, it occasionally penetrates forests, and sometimes inhabits clearings within forested areas. It has also been known to live in areas of human habitation.[3]

It is likely they have small habitat ranges. They move around during the wet and dry seasons. This is information is inferred by comparing the movements of the Nankeen Kestrel (F. cenchroides), their closest relative.[2][4] Both species are known to be more sedentary when compared to the common kestrel (F. tinnunculus).[4][5]
Description

Spotted kestrels measure 26–32 cm (10–12.5 in) from head to tail, with a wingspan of 59–71 cm (23–28 in). On average, spotted kestrels weigh 162 g (5.7 oz).[6] The sexual dimorphism in size and plumage is less pronounced than that of the common kestrel.[2]

Males have grey tails with one broad subterminal band with white tips. Females also have grey tails with white tips, although they have 9 dark bands.

Juveniles are very similar to females, but they appear more darker and heavily marked.[2]

The eggs resemble that of the common kestrel. The colour and shape of the egg is similar to Oriental hobby (Falco severus).[7]
Behaviour

The spotted kestrel displays similar habits to that of the common kestrel.[8] Although, spotted kestrels live more sedentary lives when compared to their sister group, F. tinnunculus.[5]
Reproduction

Little is known about their breeding habits. Although, they were observed to be in a pre-breeding behaviour in June–July, during the dry season. In one instance, breeding was observed in August. Although, they also displayed breeding behaviour in December–January, during the wet season. It may be possible that they breed during both seasons, although more information is needed.[9]
Diet

The spotted kestrel feeds primarily on small mammals, birds (mostly waterfowl and doves), lizards, and insects.

The feeding behaviour of the spotted kestrel is not well known. But we can deduced the diet by looking at their closest relative, the Nankeen Kestrel (F. cenchroides). On Christmas Island, an island south of Java, Nankeen kestrels have colonized the island. The giant grasshopper (V. irregularis) consisted 97% of their caught prey.[10] Insects are preyed on the most, but vertebrates make up the weight of their diet. They were also seen preying on spotted dove, western bearded dragons, mice, and other birds such as the common starlings.[11][12][13]
Nesting

Displaying similar nesting habits to other kestrels, the spotted kestrel can be found occupying human-made structures, abandoned nests, and cliff sides.[8] In Indonesia, nests were found in a variety of locations, including the peaked roofs of traditional houses or in the crowns of palm trees.[14] Nests are usually occupied from March through September or October during mating season.[8] Similar to other falcons, the spotted kestrel does not build its own nests. Instead, it lays its eggs in abandoned nests built by other raptors or corvids.[6] They were also seen in nesting in traditional Sumbanese houses, as they provide shelter and elevation. They prefer high elevation and open habitats.

When looking at the nesting behaviour of their sister taxon (Nankeen Kestrel), clutch sizes range from 3–5 eggs. Incubation periods last up to 28 days. Males were seen assisting the females with the incubation. The fledging period last for 31 to 35 days.[15]
Voice

The spotted kestrel has a call described as common, a keek, keek, keek, similar to other kestrels. While in flight, they tend to use a more scream-like call, rrrrit, rrrrit, rrrrit.[8]

Dickcissel male perched on a metal pole singing, with neck stretched and beak open.

Songs and calls
Listen to Falco moluccensis on xeno-canto
See also

Birds portal

Falcon

References

BirdLife International (2016). "Falco moluccensis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T22696388A93558606. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22696388A93558606.en. Retrieved 20 November 2021.
Clark, William S.; Kirwan, Guy M.; Marks, Jeffrey S. (2020). "Spotted Kestrel (Falco moluccensis), version 1.0". Birds of the World. doi:10.2173/bow.spokes1.01. S2CID 243208230.
Suparman, Usep (2010). "Species account: Spotted Kestrel, Falco moluccensis". Global Raptor Information Network. The Peregrine Fund.
Olsen, Penny D.; Olsen, Jerry (1987). "Movements and Measurements of the Australian Kestrel Falco cenchroides". Emu - Austral Ornithology. 87 (1): 35–41. doi:10.1071/MU9870035 – via Taylor & Francis Online.
Ferrer, Miguel; Bildstein, Keith; Penteriani, Vincenzo; Casado, Eva; Lucas, Manuela de (2011-07-19). "Why Birds with Deferred Sexual Maturity Are Sedentary on Islands: A Systematic Review". PLOS ONE. 6 (7): e22056. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0022056. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3139619. PMID 21811559.
"Spotted Kestrel | The Peregrine Fund". www.peregrinefund.org. Retrieved 2023-05-02.
Hellebrekers, W.P.J.; Hoogerwerf, A. (1967). "A further contribution to our Oological knowledge of the Island of Java (Indonesia)". Zoologische Verhandelingen. 88 (1): 1–164 – via Naturalis Biodiversity Center.
Ferguson-Lees, James (2001). Raptors of the World. p. 853.
Londei, T. (2018). "Spotted Kestrel Falco moluccensis nesting in Sumba's traditional houses: A comment on Olsen & Trost (2007)". Australian Field Ornithology. 35: 40–41. doi:10.20938/afo35040041 – via Birdlife Australia.
Schulz, M.; Lumsden, L. (2009). "Diet of the Nankeen Kestrel Falco cenchroides on Christmas Island". Australian Field Ornithology. 26 (1–2): 28–32 – via Birdlife Australia.
Olsen, P.; Vestjens, W. J. M.; Olsen, Jerry (1979). "Observations on the Diet of the Australian Kestrel Falco Cenchroides". Emu - Austral Ornithology. 79 (3): 133–138. doi:10.1071/MU9790133 – via Taylor & Francis Online.
Fulton, G. R. (2015). "Nankeen Kestrel preys upon Western Bearded Dragon". Australian Field Ornithology. 32 (4): 187–189 – via Birdlife Australia.
Pacher, J. (2010). "Nankeen Kestrel takes spotted dove". Australian Field Ornithology. 27 (1): 35–37 – via Birdlife Australia.
Spotted kestrel, AVI Birds.com (retrieved 16 June 2014)

Olsen, P.; Olsen, J. (1980). "Observations on Development, Nesting Chronolgy, and Clutch and Brood Size in the Australian Kestrel, Falco cenchroides (Aves : Falconidae)". Wildlife Research. 7 (2): 247–255. doi:10.1071/wr9800247. ISSN 1448-5494.

Further reading
Thiollay, J.-M. (1998). "Distribution patterns and insular biogeography of South Asian raptor communities". Journal of Biogeography. 25: 52–72. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2699.1998.251164.x. S2CID 83845355.
Olsen, Jerry; Susan Trost (2007). "Diurnal Raptors on the Island of Sumba, Indonesia, in June/July and December/January 2001–2002" (PDF). Australian Field Ornithology. 24: 158–166. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-10-24.
Thiollay, J.M; Zaini Rahman (2002). "The raptor community of Central Sulawesi: habitat selection and conservation status". Biological Conservation. 107: 111–122. doi:10.1016/s0006-3207(02)00051-4.The spotted kestrel (Falco moluccensis) is also known as the Moluccan kestrel.[2]
Taxonomy

Little is known about the spotted kestrel, although it is thought to be closely related to the Nankeen Kestrel (Falco cenchroides). Both species are considered members of the Falco tinnunculus group.[2]
Distribution and Habitat

The spotted kestrel are distributed throughout Indonesia.[2]

Spread through Wallacea and Java, the spotted kestrel inhabits grasslands with scattered trees, lightly wooded cultivation, and the edges of primary and tall secondary forest. Along logging roads, it occasionally penetrates forests, and sometimes inhabits clearings within forested areas. It has also been known to live in areas of human habitation.[3]

It is likely they have small habitat ranges. They move around during the wet and dry seasons. This is information is inferred by comparing the movements of the Nankeen Kestrel (F. cenchroides), their closest relative.[2][4] Both species are known to be more sedentary when compared to the common kestrel (F. tinnunculus).[4][5]
Description

Spotted kestrels measure 26–32 cm (10–12.5 in) from head to tail, with a wingspan of 59–71 cm (23–28 in). On average, spotted kestrels weigh 162 g (5.7 oz).[6] The sexual dimorphism in size and plumage is less pronounced than that of the common kestrel.[2]

Males have grey tails with one broad subterminal band with white tips. Females also have grey tails with white tips, although they have 9 dark bands.

Juveniles are very similar to females, but they appear more darker and heavily marked.[2]

The eggs resemble that of the common kestrel. The colour and shape of the egg is similar to Oriental hobby (Falco severus).[7]
Behaviour

The spotted kestrel displays similar habits to that of the common kestrel.[8] Although, spotted kestrels live more sedentary lives when compared to their sister group, F. tinnunculus.[5]
Reproduction

Little is known about their breeding habits. Although, they were observed to be in a pre-breeding behaviour in June–July, during the dry season. In one instance, breeding was observed in August. Although, they also displayed breeding behaviour in December–January, during the wet season. It may be possible that they breed during both seasons, although more information is needed.[9]
Diet

The spotted kestrel feeds primarily on small mammals, birds (mostly waterfowl and doves), lizards, and insects.

The feeding behaviour of the spotted kestrel is not well known. But we can deduced the diet by looking at their closest relative, the Nankeen Kestrel (F. cenchroides). On Christmas Island, an island south of Java, Nankeen kestrels have colonized the island. The giant grasshopper (V. irregularis) consisted 97% of their caught prey.[10] Insects are preyed on the most, but vertebrates make up the weight of their diet. They were also seen preying on spotted dove, western bearded dragons, mice, and other birds such as the common starlings.[11][12][13]
Nesting

Displaying similar nesting habits to other kestrels, the spotted kestrel can be found occupying human-made structures, abandoned nests, and cliff sides.[8] In Indonesia, nests were found in a variety of locations, including the peaked roofs of traditional houses or in the crowns of palm trees.[14] Nests are usually occupied from March through September or October during mating season.[8] Similar to other falcons, the spotted kestrel does not build its own nests. Instead, it lays its eggs in abandoned nests built by other raptors or corvids.[6] They were also seen in nesting in traditional Sumbanese houses, as they provide shelter and elevation. They prefer high elevation and open habitats.

When looking at the nesting behaviour of their sister taxon (Nankeen Kestrel), clutch sizes range from 3–5 eggs. Incubation periods last up to 28 days. Males were seen assisting the females with the incubation. The fledging period last for 31 to 35 days.[15]
Voice

The spotted kestrel has a call described as common, a keek, keek, keek, similar to other kestrels. While in flight, they tend to use a more scream-like call, rrrrit, rrrrit, rrrrit.[8]

Dickcissel male perched on a metal pole singing, with neck stretched and beak open.

Songs and calls
Listen to Falco moluccensis on xeno-canto

References

BirdLife International (2016). "Falco moluccensis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T22696388A93558606. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22696388A93558606.en. Retrieved 20 November 2021.
Clark, William S.; Kirwan, Guy M.; Marks, Jeffrey S. (2020). "Spotted Kestrel (Falco moluccensis), version 1.0". Birds of the World. doi:10.2173/bow.spokes1.01. S2CID 243208230.
Suparman, Usep (2010). "Species account: Spotted Kestrel, Falco moluccensis". Global Raptor Information Network. The Peregrine Fund.
Olsen, Penny D.; Olsen, Jerry (1987). "Movements and Measurements of the Australian Kestrel Falco cenchroides". Emu - Austral Ornithology. 87 (1): 35–41. doi:10.1071/MU9870035 – via Taylor & Francis Online.
Ferrer, Miguel; Bildstein, Keith; Penteriani, Vincenzo; Casado, Eva; Lucas, Manuela de (2011-07-19). "Why Birds with Deferred Sexual Maturity Are Sedentary on Islands: A Systematic Review". PLOS ONE. 6 (7): e22056. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0022056. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3139619. PMID 21811559.
"Spotted Kestrel | The Peregrine Fund". www.peregrinefund.org. Retrieved 2023-05-02.
Hellebrekers, W.P.J.; Hoogerwerf, A. (1967). "A further contribution to our Oological knowledge of the Island of Java (Indonesia)". Zoologische Verhandelingen. 88 (1): 1–164 – via Naturalis Biodiversity Center.
Ferguson-Lees, James (2001). Raptors of the World. p. 853.
Londei, T. (2018). "Spotted Kestrel Falco moluccensis nesting in Sumba's traditional houses: A comment on Olsen & Trost (2007)". Australian Field Ornithology. 35: 40–41. doi:10.20938/afo35040041 – via Birdlife Australia.
Schulz, M.; Lumsden, L. (2009). "Diet of the Nankeen Kestrel Falco cenchroides on Christmas Island". Australian Field Ornithology. 26 (1–2): 28–32 – via Birdlife Australia.
Olsen, P.; Vestjens, W. J. M.; Olsen, Jerry (1979). "Observations on the Diet of the Australian Kestrel Falco Cenchroides". Emu - Austral Ornithology. 79 (3): 133–138. doi:10.1071/MU9790133 – via Taylor & Francis Online.
Fulton, G. R. (2015). "Nankeen Kestrel preys upon Western Bearded Dragon". Australian Field Ornithology. 32 (4): 187–189 – via Birdlife Australia.
Pacher, J. (2010). "Nankeen Kestrel takes spotted dove". Australian Field Ornithology. 27 (1): 35–37 – via Birdlife Australia.
Spotted kestrel, AVI Birds.com (retrieved 16 June 2014)

Olsen, P.; Olsen, J. (1980). "Observations on Development, Nesting Chronolgy, and Clutch and Brood Size in the Australian Kestrel, Falco cenchroides (Aves : Falconidae)". Wildlife Research. 7 (2): 247–255. doi:10.1071/wr9800247. ISSN 1448-5494.

Further reading
Thiollay, J.-M. (1998). "Distribution patterns and insular biogeography of South Asian raptor communities". Journal of Biogeography. 25: 52–72. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2699.1998.251164.x. S2CID 83845355.
Olsen, Jerry; Susan Trost (2007). "Diurnal Raptors on the Island of Sumba, Indonesia, in June/July and December/January 2001–2002" (PDF). Australian Field Ornithology. 24: 158–166. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-10-24.
Thiollay, J.M; Zaini Rahman (2002). "The raptor community of Central Sulawesi: habitat selection and conservation status". Biological Conservation. 107: 111–122. doi:10.1016/s0006-3207(02)00051-4.