Falco biarmicus

Falco biarmicus (*)

Life-forms

Superregnum: Eukaryota
Cladus: Unikonta
Cladus: Opisthokonta
Cladus: Holozoa
Regnum: Animalia
Subregnum: Eumetazoa
Cladus: Bilateria
Cladus: Nephrozoa
Superphylum: Deuterostomia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Infraphylum: Gnathostomata
Megaclassis: Osteichthyes
Cladus: Sarcopterygii
Cladus: Rhipidistia
Cladus: Tetrapodomorpha
Cladus: Eotetrapodiformes
Cladus: Elpistostegalia
Superclassis: Tetrapoda
Cladus: Reptiliomorpha
Cladus: Amniota
Classis: Reptilia
Cladus: Eureptilia
Cladus: Romeriida
Subclassis: Diapsida
Cladus: Sauria
Infraclassis: Archosauromorpha
Cladus: Crurotarsi
Divisio: Archosauria
Cladus: Avemetatarsalia
Cladus: Ornithodira
Subtaxon: Dinosauromorpha
Cladus: Dinosauriformes
Cladus: Dracohors
Cladus: Dinosauria
Cladus: Saurischia
Cladus: Eusaurischia
Subordo: Theropoda
Cladus: Neotheropoda
Cladus: Averostra
Cladus: Tetanurae
Cladus: Avetheropoda
Cladus: Coelurosauria
Cladus: Tyrannoraptora
Cladus: Maniraptoromorpha
Cladus: Maniraptoriformes
Cladus: Maniraptora
Cladus: Pennaraptora
Cladus: Paraves
Cladus: Eumaniraptora
Cladus: Avialae
Infraclassis: Aves
Cladus: Avebrevicauda
Cladus: Pygostylia
Cladus: Ornithothoraces
Cladus: Ornithuromorpha
Cladus: Carinatae
Parvclassis: Neornithes
Cohors: Neognathae
Cladus: Neoaves
Cladus: Telluraves
Cladus: Australaves
Ordo: Falconiformes

Familia: Falconidae
Subfamilia: Falconinae
Genus: Falco
Species: Falco biarmicus
Subspecies: F. b. abyssinicus – F. b. biarmicus – F. b. erlangeri – F. b. feldeggii – F. b. tanypterus
Name

Falco biarmicus Temminck, 1825
References

Nouveau recueil de planches coloriées d'oiseaux livr.55: pl.324, text

Vernacular names
Afrikaans: Edelvalk
aragonés: Falcón griso
العربية: صقر وكري
azərbaycanca: Aralıq dənizi qızılquşu
български: Далматински сокол
brezhoneg: Falc'hun-roc'h
català: Falcó llaner
čeština: Raroh jižní
dansk: Lannerfalk
Deutsch: Lannerfalke
Ελληνικά: Χρυσογέρακο
English: Lanner Falcon
Esperanto: Balkana falko
español: Halcón borní
eesti: Kõnnupistrik
euskara: Falcó llaner
فارسی: لاچین (پرنده)
suomi: Keltapäähaukka
français: Faucon lanier
galego: Alfaneque
עברית: בז צוקים
magyar: Feldegg-sólyom
հայերեն: Բազե միջերկրածովյան
íslenska: Slagfálki
italiano: Lanario
日本語: ラナーハヤブサ
lietuvių: Rudagalvis sakalas
latviešu: Rudgalvas piekūns
македонски: Далматински (Јужен) сокол
Malti: Bies Rasu Qastnija
Nederlands: Lannervalk
norsk: Slagfalk
Sesotho sa Leboa: Pekwa
polski: Raróg górski
português: Falcão-borni
русский: Ланнер
slovenčina: Sokol tmavý
slovenščina: Južni sokol
chiShona: Rukodzi
shqip: Fajkoi
српски / srpski: Planinski soko / Планински соко
Sesotho: Phakoe
svenska: Slagfalk
Kiswahili: Kozi Marumbi
Setswana: Phakwê
Türkçe: Bıyıklı doğan
Xitsonga: Rikhozi
українська: Середземноморський сокіл
Tiếng Việt: Cắt ấn độ
isiXhosa: Ukhetshe
中文: 地中海隼
isiZulu: uHeshe

The lanner falcon (Falco biarmicus) is a medium-sized bird of prey that breeds in Africa, southeast Europe and just into Asia. It prefers open habitat and is mainly resident, but some birds disperse more widely after the breeding season. A large falcon, it preys on birds and bats.[2] Most likely either the lanner or peregrine falcon was the sacred species of falcon to the ancient Egyptians,[3] and some ancient Egyptian deities, like Ra and Horus, were often represented as a man with the head of a lanner falcon.
Taxonomy and etymology

The lanner falcon was described by the Dutch zoologist Coenraad Jacob Temminck in 1825 under the current binomial name Falco biarmicus.[4] The type locality is Caffraria and the Cape of Good Hope.[5] Falco is Late Latin for a "falcon", from falx, falcis "sickle". The Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus had used the specific epithet biarmicus for the bearded reedling and Temminck clearly believed that the word meant "bearded" but it is likely that Linnaeus was using the Latinized form for Bjarmaland, a district in northern Russia.[6] The English word "lanner" is believed to come from the Old French lanier meaning "cowardly". The first recorded use of the word in English is from around 1400.[7]

This is presumably the oldest living hierofalcon species. Support for this assumption comes mainly from biogeography agreeing better with the confusing pattern of DNA sequence data in this case than in others. Nonetheless, there is rampant hybridization (like the perilanner) and incomplete lineage sorting which confounds the data to a massive extent; molecular studies with small sample sizes cannot yield reliable conclusions in the entire hierofalcon group.

In any case, the radiation of the entire living diversity of hierofalcons seems to have taken place in the Eemian interglacial at the start of the Late Pleistocene, a mere 130,000–115,000 years ago; the lanner falcons would thus represent the lineage that became isolated in sub-Saharan Africa at some time during the Riss glaciation (200,000 to 130,000 years ago) already.[8][9][10][11]

There are five recognised subspecies:[12]

F. b. biarmicus Temminck, 1825 – The nominate subspecies, ranges from the Democratic Republic of the Congo to southern Kenya south to South Africa
F. b. feldeggii Schlegel, 1843 – Italy to Turkey, Azerbaijan and northwestern Iran
F. b. tanypterus Schlegel, 1843 – northeastern Africa to Arabia, Israel and Iraq
F. b. erlangeri Kleinschmidt, O., 1901 – northwestern Africa
F. b. abyssinicus Neumann, 1904 – southern Mauritania to Ethiopia and Somalia south to Cameroon and northern Kenya

Description
Flying in South Africa
South Africa
Eggs, Collection Museum Wiesbaden

It is a large falcon, at 43–50 cm (17–20 in) length with a wingspan of 95–105 cm (37–41 in). Eurasian lanner falcons (Falco biarmicus feldeggi, also called Feldegg's falcon) have slate grey or brown-grey upperparts; most African subspecies are a paler blue grey above. The breast is streaked in northern birds, resembling greyish saker falcons, but the lanner has a reddish back to the head. Sexes are similar, but the browner young birds resemble saker falcons even more. However, sakers have a lighter top of the head and less clear head-side patterns. The lanner's call is a harsh "wray-e".
Distribution and habitat

Lanner falcons are predominantly located in open habitats and can range from the forest edge to the desert. However, they are most commonly found in open savannah and sour grasslands. In South Africa, they commonly inhabit the east of the country in grasslands and move into the Fynbos, Nama Karoo and Southern Kalahari during the non-breeding season.[13]

Despite this movement, they are not truly migratory birds, and are usually limited to local movements. These movements may be in response to seasonal rains and altitudes, where higher elevations are inhabited during breeding season, and lower elevations are inhabited out of breeding season.[13]

They are bred in captivity for falconry; hybrids with the peregrine ("perilanners") are also often seen. Merret (1666) claimed that the "lanar" lived in Sherwood Forest and the Forest of Dean in England; such populations would seem to have derived from escaped hunting birds of the nobility.[14] Edward I of England (reigned 1272-1307), who had a passion for falconry, owned at least one lanner.

In the wild, lanner falcon numbers are strongly and steadily declining in Europe as well as in the whole North Africa, though the species remains relatively common in parts of Africa. In the Degua Tembien mountains of Ethiopia, it was observed to contribute to controlling pest rodents.[15]
Ecology
Moulting

Females usually moult from September to January, after the nesting period is over. Whereas, males moult from November to May, once the chicks can hunt for themselves.[16]
Diet

Lanner falcons most commonly prey on other birds, including doves, pigeons and domestic chickens or fowls.[17] These falcons have also been seen to prey on small mammals, reptiles and invertebrates. In Africa and Israel, lanner falcons were observed as hunting bats.[2]
Hunting

It usually hunts by horizontal pursuit, rather than the peregrine falcon's stoop from a height, and takes mainly bird prey in flight. However, these raptors make use of a multitude of hunting styles, including stooping after soaring, attacking from a perch, attacking from a fast, low coursing flight and aerial attacks from a perch.[16] Lanner falcons also exhibit co-operative hunting with high success rate specifically when hunting jackdaws, where the use of visual contact is used to coordinate the chase.[18] Males most commonly make the initial attack, yet the prey is usually caught by the female.
Behaviour

Before the breeding season, both males and females show mutual soaring and flapping flight which are closely synchronized from April to June. Near nesting sites, pairs have also been seen to power-dive together.[16]

Once eggs are fledged, the female predominantly stays with and feeds the juveniles. However, the male takes over this role when the female needs to hunt. When the juveniles are about 25 days old, the female is commonly seen perched near the nest, but still spends a large amount of time in the nest with the juveniles. When the juveniles are about 39 days old, the female does not spend large amounts of time in the nest anymore and both the female and male are actively hunting.[16]
Nesting habits

Lanner falcons usually nest on sheer cliff faces, and lay three or four eggs. They do not have strict nesting regulations and as a result are more common and do not show a patchy distribution. As a result they also make use of old crow nests and are sometimes seen nesting on pylons, trees and less steep cliff faces.[19]
Breeding

Lanner falcon have a laying period in July which suggests a strategy to fledge young before the heat and heavy rain of the summer as well as before the influx of migratory birds during December to February. This timing may improve foraging conditions for juveniles which can increase the success of breeding. Breeding success for these falcons is largely affected by environmental conditions.[20] The incubation period is thought to be 32 days and the nesting period to be 44 days. However, juveniles have been present near nests up to ten weeks after fledgling.[16] The mean fledgling rate is 2.24 young per successful pair which is typical of large falcons, however, the mean number of individuals fledged overall per territorial pair is 1.3 which is low and may be due to the number of unproductive years towards the end of each territory's occupancy.[16]
Threats

Lanner falcons are of Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, yet they can still be negatively affected through anthropogenic process, directly and indirectly.

Direct anthropogenic threats to these raptors include nest robbery, vehicle collisions, electrocution from power lines and persecution. As chicks can barely fly when leaving the nest they are vulnerable and easy to catch, they are threatened by being captured for falconries and through being caught and killed by angry farmers as a result of these birds sometimes preying on domestic chickens.[16]

Indirect anthropogenic threats include loss of suitable habitats as a result of human expansion and the intensive use of pesticides for agriculture.[13]

References

BirdLife International (2021). "Falco biarmicus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22696487A200013311. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22696487A200013311.en. Retrieved 18 November 2021.
Mikula, P.; Morelli, F.; Lučan, R. K.; Jones, D. N.; Tryjanowski, P. (2016). "Bats as prey of diurnal birds: a global perspective". Mammal Review. 46 (3): 160–174. doi:10.1111/mam.12060.
Wilkinson, Richard H. (2003). The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p. 202.
Temminck, Coenraad Jacob (1825). Nouveau recueil de planches coloriées d'oiseaux, pour servir de suite et de complément aux planches enluminées de Buffon (in French). Vol. 1. Paris: F.G. Levrault. Plate 324. The 5 volumes were originally issued in 102 parts, 1820-1839
Mayr, Ernst; Cottrell, G. William, eds. (1979). Check-list of Birds of the World. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Museum of Comparative Zoology. p. 419.
Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 71, 151. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
"lanner". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
Helbig, A.J.; Seibold, I.; Bednarek, W.; Brüning, H.; Gaucher, P.; Ristow, D.; Scharlau, W.; Schmidl, D.; Wink, Michael (1994). Meyburg, B.-U.; Chancellor, R.D. (eds.). Phylogenetic relationships among falcon species (genus Falco) according to DNA sequence variation of the cytochrome b gene (PDF). Raptor conservation today. pp. 593–599.
Wink, Michael; Seibold, I.; Lotfikhah, F.; Bednarek, W. (1998). Chancellor, R.D.; Meyburg, B.-U.; Ferrero, J.J. (eds.). "Molecular systematics of holarctic raptors (Order Falconiformes)" (PDF). Holarctic Birds of Prey. Adenex & WWGBP: 29–48.
Nittinger, F.; Haring, E.; Pinsker, W.; Wink, Michael; Gamauf, A. (2005). "Out of Africa? Phylogenetic relationships between Falco biarmicus and other hierofalcons (Aves Falconidae)" (PDF). Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research. 43 (4): 321–331. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0469.2005.00326.x.
Wink, Michael; Sauer-Gürth, Hedi; Ellis, David; Kenward, Robert (2004). Chancellor, R.D.; Meyburg, B.-U. (eds.). "Phylogenetic relationships in the Hierofalco complex (Saker-, Gyr-, Lanner-, Laggar Falcon)" (PDF). Raptors Worldwide. Berlin: WWGBP: 499–504.
Gill, Frank; Donsker, David, eds. (2017). "Falcons". World Bird List Version 7.3. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 14 November 2017.
Jenkins, Andrew R. (1994-12-01). "The Influence of Habitat on the Distribution and Abundance of Peregrine and Lanner Falcons in South Africa". Ostrich. 65 (3–4): 281–290. doi:10.1080/00306525.1994.9632688. ISSN 0030-6525.
Merret, Christopher (1666). Pinax rerum naturalium Britannicarum continens vegetabilia, animalia et fossilia, in hac insula reperta inchoatus (in Latin). London: Pulleyn and F. & T. Warren.
Meheretu Yonas; Leirs, H (2019). Raptor perch sites for biological control of agricultural pest rodents. In: Nyssen J., Jacob, M., Frankl, A. (Eds.). Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District. SpringerNature. ISBN 978-3-030-04954-6.
Kemp, A. C. (1993-03-01). "Breeding Biology of Lanner Falcons Near Pretoria, South Africa". Ostrich. 64 (1): 26–31. doi:10.1080/00306525.1993.9634192. ISSN 0030-6525.
Jenkins, A.R (2000). "Variation in the quality of parental care at falcon nests in South Africa as evidence for postulated differences in food availability". Ardea. 88 (1): 17–32.
Leonardi, Giovanni (1999). "Cooperative hunting of Jackdaws by the Lanner Falcon (Falco biarmicus)" (PDF). Journal of Raptor Research. 33 (2): 123–127.
Jenkins, Andrew (2000-09-01). "Characteristics of Peregrine and Lanner Falcon nesting habitats in South Africa". Ostrich. 71 (3–4): 416–424. doi:10.1080/00306525.2000.9639844. ISSN 0030-6525. S2CID 85169008.

Jenkins, Andrew (September 2000). "Factors affecting breeding success of Peregrine and Lanner Falcons in South Africa". Ostrich. 71 (3–4): 385–392. doi:10.1080/00306525.2000.9639837. ISSN 0030-6525. S2CID 84877884.

Sharpe, Richard Bowdler (1874). Catalogue of the birds in the British Museum. Vol. 1. London: British Museum (Natural History).
Strickland, Hugh Edwin (1855). Ornithological Synonyms. London: J. Van Voorst.