Calophyllum inophyllum

Classification System: APG IV

Superregnum: Eukaryota
Regnum: Plantae
Cladus: Angiosperms
Cladus: Eudicots
Cladus: Core eudicots
Cladus: Rosids
Cladus: Eurosids I
Ordo: Malpighiales

Familia: Calophyllaceae
Tribus: Calophylleae
Genus: Calophyllum
Species: Calophyllum inophyllum
Name

Calophyllum inophyllum L., Sp. Pl. 1: 513. 1753.

Lectotypus: Herb. Hermann 2: 82, No. 201 (BM-000594641) (JSTOR Global Plants) (designated by Bamps & al. in Polhill, Fl. Trop. E. Africa. Guttiferae: 3. 1978).

Synonyms

Homotypic
Balsamaria inophyllum (L.) Lour., Fl. Cochinch. 2: 470. 1790.
Heterotypic
Calophyllum bingator Roxb., Hort. Bengal. 41. 1814; Fl. Ind. 2: 607. 1824.
Calophyllum blumei Wight, Ill. Ind. Bot. 1: 128. 1838.
Calophyllum inophyllum β blumei (Wight) Hassk., Pl. Jav. Rar. 276. 1848.
Calophyllum inophyllum f. oblongata Miq., Pl. Jungh. 291. 1854.
Calophyllum inophyllum f. obovata Miq., Pl. Jungh. 291. 1854.
Calophyllum ovatifolium Noronha, Verh. Batav. Genootsch. Kunst. 5(Art. 4): 13. 1790.
Calophyllum inophyllum var. takamaka Fosberg, Kew Bull. 29(2): 255. 1974.
Calophyllum wakamatsui Kaneh., Bot. Mag. (Tokyo) 48: 401. 1934.
Calophyllum inophyllum var. wakamatsui (Kaneh.) Fosberg & Sachet, Smithsonian Contr. Bot. 45: 12. 1980.

Distribution
Native distribution areas:

Continental: Africa
Regional: West Tropical Africa
Guinea (introduced).
Regional: West-Central Tropical Africa
Cameroon, Congo, Gabon (all introduced), Gulf of Guinea Islands (Bioko).
Regional: East Tropical Africa
Kenya, Tanzania.
Regional: South Tropical Africa
Mozambique.
Regional: Western Indian Ocean
Aldabra, Chagos Archipelago, Comoros (Comoros, Mayotte), Mauritius, Madagascar, Réunion, Rodrigues, Seychelles.
Continental: Asia-Temperate (all introduced)
Regional: China
China South-Central (Yunnan (?)), Hainan, China Southeast (Guangdong (?)).
Regional: Eastern Asia
Kazan-retto, Nansei-shoto, Ogasawara-shoto, Taiwan
Regional: Indian Subcontinent
Bangladesh, India (Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, all introduced), Laccadive Islands, Maldives, Sri Lanka.
Regional: Indo-China
Andaman Islands, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Nicobar Islands, Vietnam.
Regional: Malesia
Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Jawa, Malaya (Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore), Philippines, Christmas Isle.
Regional: Papuasia
Bismarck Archipelago.
Regional: Australia
Northern Territory, Queensland.
Continental: Pacific
Regional: Southwestern Pacific
Fiji, Gilbert Islands, Nauru, Niue, New Caledonia, Phoenix Islands, Samoa (American Samoa, Western Samoa), Tokelau-Manihiki (Swains Island, Tokelau), Tonga, Tuvalu (introduced), Wallis-Futuna Islands.
Regional: South-Central Pacific
Cook Islands, Line Islands (Kiribati Line Islands, U.S. Line Islands), Marquesas, Society Islands, Tuamotu, Tubuai Islands.
Regional: Northwestern Pacific
Caroline Islands (Micronesia Federated States, Palau), Marianas (Guam, Northern Marianas), Marshall Islands.
Regional: North-Central Pacific
Hawaii (Hawaiian Islands: Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, Hawaii Island; introduced)
Continental: Northern America
Regional: Southeastern U.S.A.
Florida (introduced).
Continental: Southern America (all introduced)
Regional: Central America
Costa Rica, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama.
Regional: Caribbean
Cuba, Puerto Rico, Trinidad-Tobago.
Regional: Western South America
Colombia.

References: Brummitt, R.K. 2001. TDWG – World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions, 2nd Edition
References

Linnaeus, C. 1753. Species Plantarum. Tomus I: 513. Reference page. 
Jarvis, C.E. 2007. Order out of Chaos: Linnaean Plant Names and their Types. London: Linnean Society of London in association with the Natural History Museum, ISBN 978-0-9506207-7-0, p. 376. Reference page. 

Links

Hassler, M. 2019. Calophyllum inophyllum. World Plants: Synonymic Checklists of the Vascular Plants of the World In: Roskovh, Y., Abucay, L., Orrell, T., Nicolson, D., Bailly, N., Kirk, P., Bourgoin, T., DeWalt, R.E., Decock, W., De Wever, A., Nieukerken, E. van, Zarucchi, J. & Penev, L., eds. 2019. Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life. Published online. Accessed: 2019 Jul. 17. Reference page. 
Govaerts, R. et al. 2019. Calophyllum inophyllum in Kew Science Plants of the World Online. The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published online. Accessed: 2019 Jul. 17. Reference page. 
International Plant Names Index. 2019. Calophyllum inophyllum. Published online. Accessed: Jul 17 2019.
Tropicos.org 2019. Calophyllum inophyllum. Missouri Botanical Garden. Published online. Accessed: 17 Jul 2019.

Vernacular names
Deutsch: Alexandrinischer Lorbeer
English: Alexandrian-laurel, balltree, beach calophyllum, beach touriga, beautyleaf, Borneo-mahogany, Indian doomba oiltree, Indian-laurel, laurelwood, satin touriga, tacamahac-tree
español: palo de Santa María, palo María, undi

Calophyllum inophyllum is a large evergreen plant, commonly called tamanu, oil-nut, mastwood, beach calophyllum or beautyleaf.[2] It is native to tropical Asia and Wallacea. Due to its importance as a source of timber for the traditional shipbuilding of large outrigger ships, it has been spread in prehistoric times by the migrations of the Austronesian peoples to the islands of Oceania and Madagascar, along with other members of the genus Calophyllum. It has since been naturalized in regions in the East African coast.[3] It is also a source of the culturally important tamanu oil.

Names

Calophyllum inophyllum is also known as Alexandrian laurel[2][4] balltree,[2] beach touriga,[2] Borneo-mahogany,[2] Indian doomba oiltree,[2] Indian-laurel,[2] laurelwood,[2] red poon,[5] satin touriga,[2] and tacamahac-tree.[2] In Island Southeast Asia and Oceania, they are also commonly known as bintangur, bitaog, tamanu, or kamani.[6] In India it is known as Polanga (ପୋଲାଙ୍ଗ) in Odia, Punnag (पुन्नाग) in Marathi and Punnai in Tamil languages.
Description
Leaves
Tree and leaves

Calophyllum inophyllum is a low-branching and slow-growing tree, it spreads with a broad and irregular crown. It usually reaches 8 to 30 m (26 to 98 ft) in height.[7]
Flowers

Flowering can occur perennially, but usually two distinct flowering periods are observed twice a year, in late spring from April to June and in late autumn from October to December.[7] The flower is 25 to 30 mm (0.98 to 1.18 in) wide and occurs in racemose or paniculate inflorescences consisting of four to 15 flowers. It has a sweet fragrance which attracts many insects to pollinate it.[7]
Fruit

The fruit (the ballnut) is a round, green drupe measuring 2 to 4 cm (0.79 to 1.57 in) in diameter. When ripe, the fruit is wrinkled and its color varies from yellow to brownish-red.[7]
Distribution and habitat

Calophyllum inophyllum is native to Africa in: Comoros; Kenya; Madagascar; Mauritius; Mozambique; Seychelles; Tanzania (including Pemba Island of the Zanzibar Archipelago); south, southeast and east Asia in: Bangladesh;[8][9] Cambodia; China (on Hainan); southern India; Andaman and Nicobar Islands Indonesia; Japan (Ryukyu Islands); Malaysia; Myanmar; Papua New Guinea; the Philippines; Sri Lanka; Taiwan; Thailand; Vietnam; the northwestern, southwestern and south central Pacific Region in: the Cook Islands; Fiji; French Polynesia (Marquesas and Society Islands); Guam; the Marshall Islands; Micronesia; the Northern Mariana Islands; Palau; and Samoa; and in Australia in: Northern Territory and Queensland.[2]
Heritage tree, Penaga Laut (Calophyllum inophyllum) at Singapore Botanic Gardens
Picture1 359wi.jpg

Now, it is widely cultivated in all tropical regions of the world.[2] Because of its decorative leaves, fragrant flowers, and spreading crown, it is best known as an ornamental plant.[2]

This tree often grows in coastal regions, as well as nearby lowland forests. However, it has also been cultivated successfully in inland areas at moderate altitudes. It tolerates varied kinds of soil, coastal sand, clay, or even degraded soil.[citation needed]
Uses
Shipbuilding

Mastwood is notable for its ability to grow to massive sizes in sandy or rocky beaches of island and coastal habitats, as well as its habit of sending out arching large trunks over the water where its seeds are dispersed via the currents.[10][3] Due to these characters, mastwood are of particular importance to traditional shipbuilding of the larger Austronesian outrigger ships and were carried with them as they migrated to Oceania and Madagascar. Other species of the genus Calophyllum were also used similarly, like Calophyllum soulattri, Calophyllum peekelii, and Calophyllum goniocarpum. They were comparable in importance to how oaks were in European shipbuilding and timber industries.[3]

Various parts of the mastwood were integral to the manufacture of outrigger canoes among various Austronesian peoples. The large curving limbs were commonly carved into the dugout canoe that formed the keel of the Austronesian outriggers ships. The strakes, which are attached to the keel by the uniquely Austronesian technique of "sewing" them with a combination of dowels and lashed lugs instead of nails, can also be made from mastwood, but it is more commonly made from other "softer" timber species like Artocarpus. Other pieces became masts, outrigger floats, and outrigger spars. Smaller curving limbs can also be carved into the ribs of the boat.[3]

In many parts of Polynesia, mastwood groves planted in marae were considered sacred and abodes of spirits. Mastwood were also carved into religious objects like tiki.[11][12] They are also commonly mentioned in the chants and folklore of Polynesia.[13]

In Australia, the 1889 book The Useful Native Plants of Australia records "During a debate on the Pearl Fisheries Bill in the Queensland Assembly, a clause was specially inserted to protect trees of this species at Thursday Island. A fine of £10 is inflicted on any person who cuts down or injures this or a cocoa-nut tree, or any other tree bearing edible fruit. This clause is, of course, in the interest of the aboriginals.".[14]
Other uses

Aside from shipbuilding, tamanu oil extracted from the fruit kernels were important in Polynesian culture. The oils, as well as poultices made from leaves and flowers, are also commonly used for traditional medicine.[10][11] The leaves contain compounds that are poisonous to fish and can be used as fish poison.[10] The sap of the tree is poisonous and is used to make poison arrows in Samoa.[15] The mature fruit is poisonous enough to use as rat bait.

The seeds yield a thick, dark green tamanu oil for medicinal use or hair grease.[16] The nuts are dried before cracking, after which the oil-laden kernel is removed and further dried. The first neoflavone isolated from natural sources (1951) was calophyllolide from C. inophyllum seeds.[17]

The Mavilan, a Tulu-speaking tribe in north Kerala in India, use the bark to make a powder that they mix with water and apply it to plants affected by a type of plant disease caused by water that they call neeru vembu.[18]

The fatty acid methyl esters derived from C. inophyllum seed oil meets the major biodiesel requirements in the United States (ASTM D 6751), and European Union (EN 14214). The average oil yield is 11.7 kg-oil/tree or 4680 kg-oil/hectare. In the northwest coastal areas of Luzon island in Philippines, the oil was used for night lamps. This widespread use started to decline when kerosene became available, and later on electricity. It was also used as fuel to generate electricity to provide power for radios during World War II.
See also

Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia

References

Barstow, M. (2019). "Calophyllum inophyllum". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T33196A67775081. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T33196A67775081.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
 Calophyllum inophyllum was first described and published in Species Plantarum 1:513. 1753. "Calophyllum inophyllum". Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Agricultural Research Service (ARS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Retrieved 26 April 2012.
Damon, Frederick H. (2016). "A Story of Calophyllum: From Ecological to Social Facts". Trees, Knots, and Outriggers: Environmental Knowledge in the Northeast Kula Ring. Berghahn Books. pp. 180–246. ISBN 9781785332333.
Mabberley, D.J. (1997). The plant book: A portable dictionary of the vascular plants. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521414210.
Kathirithamby-Wells, J. (2005). Nature and nation: Forests and Development in Peninsular Malaysia. University of Hawaii Press. p. xvi,34.
Blust, Robert; Trussel, Stephen (2013). "The Austronesian Comparative Dictionary: A Work in Progress". Oceanic Linguistics. 52 (2): 493–523. doi:10.1353/ol.2013.0016. S2CID 146739541.
Tan, Ria (January 2013). "Penaga laut". Wild Singapore. Retrieved 16 September 2022.
https://florafaunaweb.nparks.gov.sg/Special-Pages/plant-detail.aspx?id=2774
"সুলতান চাঁপার নানা গুণ". www.prothom-alo.com. Archived from the original on 2017-09-07.
Orwa, C.; Mutua, A.; Kindt, R.; Anthony, S. (2009). "Calophyllum inophyllum". Agroforestree Database:a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0 (PDF). World Agroforestry.
Dweck, A.C.; Meadows, T. (2002). "Tamanu (Calophyllum inophyllum) – the African, Asian, Polynesian and Pacific Panacea" (PDF). International Journal of Cosmetic Science. 24 (6): 341–348. doi:10.1046/j.1467-2494.2002.00160.x. PMID 18494888. S2CID 21847865. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-01-19. Retrieved 2019-01-18.
Halpern, Georges M.; Weverka, Peter (2002). The Healing Trail: Essential Oils of Madagascar. Basic Health Publications, Inc. pp. 43–50. ISBN 9781591200161.
Allen, James A. (2002). "Calophyllum inophyllum". In Vozzo, J.A. (ed.). Tropical Tree Seed Manual (PDF). Agriculture Handbook. Vol. 721. US Department of Agriculture Forest Service. pp. 357–359.
J. H. Maiden (1889). The useful native plants of Australia : Including Tasmania. Turner and Henderson, Sydney.
Alexandrian Laurel, Kamani. "Landscape Plants of America" (online ed.). plantbooks.com.
Georges M. Halpern (2002). The Healing Trail: Essential Oils of Madagascar (illustrated ed.). Basic Health Publications, Inc.
Neoflavones. 1. Natural Distribution and Spectral and Biological Properties. M. M. Garazd, Ya. L. Garazd and V. P. Khilya, Chemistry of Natural Compounds, Volume 39, Number 1 / janvier 2003.
Suresh, K. P. (2010). Indigenous Agricultural Practices among Mavilan Tribe in North Kerala.