Hydrozoa

Cladus: Eukaryota
Supergroup: Opisthokonta
Regnum: Animalia
Subregnum: Eumetazoa
Phylum: Cnidaria
Cladus: Medusozoa
Classis: Hydrozoa
Ordines: Actinulida - Capitata - Conica - Chondrophora - Filifera - Hydroida - Laingiomedusae - Limnopolypae - Narcomedusae - Proboscoida - Siphonophora - Trachymedusae

Name

Hydrozoa Owen, 1843

References

Bouillon, J.; Barnett, T.J. 1999: The marine fauna of New Zealand: Hydromedusae (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa). NIWA biodiversity memoir, (113)
Calder, D.R. 2010: Some anthoathecate hydroids and limnopolyps (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa) from the Hawaiian archipelago. Zootaxa, 2590: 1–91. Preview PDF
Schuchert, P. 1996: The marine fauna of New Zealand: athecate hydroids and their medusae (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa). NIWA biodiversity memoir, (106).
Vervoort, W.; Watson, J.E. 2003: The marine fauna of New Zealand: Leptothecata (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa) (thecate hydroids). NIWA biodiversity memoir, (119).
ITIS
2010: Zootaxa, 2336: 1–18.

Vernacular Names
Internationalization
Česky: Polypovci
Ελληνικά: Υδρόζωα
Français: Hydrozoaires
日本語: ヒドロ虫綱
Македонски: Хидроиди
Русский: Гидроиды
Suomi: Polyyppieläimet
Türkçe: Polipler
Українська: Гідроїдні

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Hydrozoa (hydrozoans) are a taxonomic class of very small, predatory animals which can be solitary or colonial and which mostly live in saltwater. A few genera within this class live in freshwater. Hydrozoans are related to jellyfish and corals and belong to the phylum Cnidaria.

Some examples of hydrozoans are the Freshwater Jelly (Craspedacusta sowerbyi), the freshwater polyps (Hydra), Obelia, the Portuguese Man o' War (Physalia physalis), the chondrophores (Porpitidae), "air fern" (Sertularia argenta) and the pink-hearted hydroids (Tubularia).

Anatomy

Most hydrozoan species include both a hydroid and a medusoid stage in their life cycle, although there are a number that have only one or the other. For example, Hydra has no medusoid stage, while Liriope lacks the hydroid stage.[1]

Polyps

The hydroid form is usually colonial, with multiple polyps connected together by tubelike hydrocauli. The hollow cavity in the middle of the polyp extends into the associated hydrocaulus, so that all the individuals of the colony are intimately connected. Where the hydrocaulus runs along the substrate it form a horizontal root-like stolon that anchors the colony to the ground.

The colonies are generally small, no more than a few centimetres across, and may have a tree-like or fan-like appearance, depending on species. The polyps themselves are usually tiny, although some non-colonial species are much larger, reaching 6 to 9 centimetres (2.4 to 3.5 in), or, in the case of the deep sea Branchiocerianthus, a remarkable 2 metres (6.6 ft).[1]

The hydrocaulus is usually surrounded by a sheath of chitin and other proteins called the perisarc. In some species, this extends upwards to also enclose part of the polyps, in some cases including a closable lid through which the polyp may extend its tentacles.[1]

In any given colony, the majority of polyps are specialised for feeding. These have a more or less cylindrical body with a terminal mouth on a raised protuberance called the hypostome, surrounded by a number of tentacles. The polyp contains a central cavity, in which initial digestion takes place. Partially digested food may then be passed into the hydrocaulus for distribution around the colony and completion of the digestion process. Unlike some other cnidarian groups, the lining of the central cavity lacks stinging nematocysts, which are found only on the tentacles and outer surface.

All colonial hydrozoans also include some polyps specialised for reproduction. These lack tentacles and contain numerous buds from which the medusoid stage of the life-cycle is produced. The arrangement and type of these reproductive polyps varies considerably between different groups.

In addition to these two basic types of polyp, a few colonial species have other specialised forms. In some, defensive polyps are found, armed with large numbers of stinging cells. In others, one polyp may develop as a large float, from which the other polyps hang down, allowing the colony to drift in open water instead of being anchored to a solid surface.[1]

Medusae

The medusae of hydrozoans are smaller than those of typical jellyfish, ranging from 0.5 to 6 centimetres (0.20 to 2.4 in) in diameter. Although most hydrozoans have a medusoid stage, this is not always free-living, and in many species, exists solely as a sexually reproducing bud on the surface of the hydroid colony. Sometimes these medusoid buds may be so degenerate as to entirely lack tentacles or mouths, essentially consisting of an isolated gonad.[1]

The body consists of a dome-like umbrella ringed by tentacles. A tube-like structure hangs down from the centre of the umbrella, and includes the mouth at its tip. Most hydrozoan medusae have just four tentacles, although a number of exceptions exist. Stinging cells are found on the tentacles and around the mouth.

The mouth leads into a central stomach cavity. Four radial canals connect the stomach to an, additional, circular canal running around the base of the bell, just above the tentacles. Striated muscle fibres also line the rim of the bell, allowing the animal to move along by alternately contracting and relaxing its body. An additional shelf of tissue lies just inside the rim, narrowing the aperture at the base of the umbrella, and thereby increasing the force of the expelled jet of water.[1]

The nervous system is unusually advanced for cnidarians, or even than in the polyps of the same species. Two nerve rings lie close to the margin of the bell, and send fibres into the muscles and tentacles. The genus Sarsia has even been reported to possess organised ganglia. Numerous sense organs are closely associated with the nerve rings. Mostly these are simple sensory nerve endings, but they also include statocysts and primitive light-sensitive ocelli.[1]

Life cycle

Hydroid colonies are usually dioecious, which means that they have separate sexes - all the polyps in each colony are either male or female, but not usually both sexes in the same colony. In some species, the reproductive polyps, known as gonozooids (or "gonotheca" in thecate hydrozoans) bud off asexually-produced medusae. These tiny, new medusae (which are either male or female) mature and spawn, releasing gametes freely into the sea in most cases. Zygotes become free-swimming planula larvae or actinula larvae that either settle on a suitable substrate (in the case of planulae), or swim and develop into another medusae or polyp directly (actinulae). Colonial hydrozoans include siphonophore colonies, Hydractinia, Obelia, and many others.

The medusa stage, if present, is the sexually-reproductive life cycle phase (that is, in hydrozoan species that have both polyp and medusa generations). Medusae of these species of Hydrozoa are known as "hydromedusae". Most hydromedusae have shorter life spans than the larger scyphozoan jellyfish. Some species of hydromedusae release gametes shortly after they are themselves released from the hydroids (as in the case of fire corals), living only a few hours, while other species of hydromedusae grow and feed in the plankton for months, spawning daily for many days before their supply of food or other water conditions deteriorate and cause their demise.

Systematics

Hydrozoan systematics is highly complex. Several approaches for expressing their interrelationships were proposed and heavily contested since the late 19th century, but in more recent times a consensus seems to be emerging.

For long, the hydrozoans were divided into a number of orders, according to their mode of growth and reproduction. Most famous among these was probably the assemblage called "Hydroida", but this group is apparently paraphyletic, united by plesiomorphic (ancestral) traits. Other such orders were the Anthoathecatae, Actinulidae, Laingiomedusae, Polypodiozoa, Siphonophora and Trachylina.

As far as can be told from the molecular and morphological data at hand, the Siphonophora for example were just highly specialized "hydroids," whereas the Limnomedusae - presumed to be a "hydroid" suborder - were simply very primitive hydrozoans and not closely related to the other "hydroids." Therefore, today the hydrozoans are at least tentatively divided into two subclasses, the Leptolinae (containing the bulk of the former "Hydroida" and the Siphonophora) and the Trachylinae, containing the others (including the Limnomedusae). The monophyly of several of the presumed orders in each subclass is still in need of verification.[2]

In any case, according to this classification, the hydrozoans can be subdivided as follows, with taxon names emended to end in "-ae":[2]

Class Hydrozoa

* Subclass Leptolinae
o Order Anthomedusae (= Anthoathecata(e), Athecata(e), Stylasterina(e)) - includes Laingoimedusae but monophyly requires verification
o Order Leptomedusae (= Leptothecata(e), Thecaphora(e), Thecata(e))
o Order Siphonophorae
* Subclass Trachylinae
o Order Actinulidae
o Order Limnomedusae - monophyly requires verification; tentatively placed here
o Order Narcomedusae
o Order Trachymedusae - monophyly requires verification

ITIS uses the same system but unlike here does not use the oldest available names for many groups.

In addition, there exists a weird cnidarian parasite, Polypodium hydriforme, which lives inside its host's cells. It is sometimes placed in the Hydrozoa, but actually its relationships are better treated as unresolved for the time being - a somewhat controversial 18S rRNA sequence analysis found it to be closer to Myxozoa. It was traditionally placed in its own class Polypodiozoa and this view is presently often seen to reflect the uncertainties surrounding this highly distinct animal.[3]

Other classifications

Some of the more widespread calen blasdell classification systems for the Hydrozoa are listed below. Though they are often found in seemingly authoritative Internet sources and databases, they do not agree with the currently available data. Especially the presumed phylogenetic distinctness of the Siphonophora is a major flaw that was corrected only recently.

The obsolete classification mentioned above was as follows:

* Order Actinulidae
* Order Anthoathecatae
* Order Hydroida
o Suborder Anthomedusae
o Suborder Leptomedusae
o Suborder Limnomedusae
* Order Laingiomedusae
* Order Polypodiozoa
* Order Siphonophora
* Order Trachylina
o Suborder Narcomedusae
o Suborder Trachymedusae

A very old classification that is sometimes still seen is:

* Order Hydroida
* Order Milleporina
* Order Siphonophorida
* Order Stylasterina (= Anthomedusae)
* Order Trachylinida

Catalogue of Life uses the following:

* Order Actinulida
* Order Anthoathecata (= Anthomedusae)
* Order Hydroida
* Order Laingiomedusae
* Order Leptothecata (= Leptomedusae)
* Order Limnomedusae
* Order Narcomedusae
* Order Siphonophora
* Order Trachymedusae

Animal Diversity Web uses the following:

* Order Actinulida
* Order Capitata
* Order Chondrophora
* Order Filifera
* Order Hydroida
* Order Siphonophora

Hydra, a freshwater genus

The most widely-known and researched freshwater hydrozoan is Hydra, which is found in slow-moving waters.

Hydra has a pedal disc composed of gland cells that helps it attach to substrates, and like all cnidarians uses nematocysts, or "stinging cells," to disable its prey. Hydra eat small crustaceans (such as brine shrimp), insect larvae, and annelid worms. Hydra may reproduce sexually, through the spawning of sperm (and thus insemination of eggs on the female body column), or through asexual reproduction (budding).

Footnotes

1. ^ a b c d e f g Barnes, Robert D. (1982). Invertebrate Zoology. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 122-139. ISBN 0-03-056747-5.
2. ^ a b Schuchert (2005)
3. ^ Zrzavý & Hypša 2003

References

* Schuchert, Peter (2005): The Hydrozoa Directory - Hydrozoan Phylogeny and Classification. Retrieved 2008-JUL-08.
* Zrzavý, Jan & Hypša, Václav (2003): Myxozoa, Polypodium, and the origin of the Bilateria: The phylogenetic position of "Endocnidozoa" in light of the rediscovery of Buddenbrockia. Cladistics 19(2): 164–169. doi:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2003.tb00305.x (HTML abstract)