Alces alces

Superregnum: Eukaryota
Cladus: Opisthokonta
Regnum: Animalia
Subregnum: Eumetazoa
Cladus: Bilateria
Cladus: Nephrozoa
Cladus: Deuterostomia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Infraphylum: Gnathostomata
Superclassis: Tetrapoda
Classis: Mammalia
Subclassis: Theria
Infraclassis: Placentalia
Ordo: Carnivora
Subordo: Caniformia
Familia: Canidae
Genus: Canis
Species: Canis hallstromi

Name

Canis hallstromi Meyer, 1793

Synonyms

* Canis familiaris hallstromi
* Canis dingo hallstromi
* Canis lupus hallstromi

References

* Koler-Matznick, J.; Brisbin, I.L., jr.; Feinstein, M.; Bulmer, S. 2003: An updated description of the New Guinea singing dog (Canis hallstromi, Troughton 1957). Journal of zoology, London, 261: 109–118. PDF
* Koler-Matznick, J.; Yates, B.C.; Bulmer, S.; Brisbin, I.L., jr. 2007: The New Guinea singing dog: its status and scientific importance. Australian mammalogy, 29: 47-56.

Vernacular names
Català: Gos de Nova Guinea
English: New Guinea Singing Dog
Español: Perro Cantor de Nueva Guinea
Français: Chien Chanteur de Nouvelle-Guinée
Polski: Śpiewający pies z Nowej Gwinei
Suomi: Laulava uudenguineankoira

Redeclared

Variation of Canis lupus ssp. dingo[1] [2]

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New Guinea Singing Dog or Singer is the name of an ancient, rare type of primitive canine that once inhabited all of the island of New Guinea. New Guinea Singing Dogs are also known by the names: New Guinea Dingo, Singing Dog, Singer, New Guinea Highland Dog, New Guinea Wild Dog, Hallstrom Dog, New Guinea Highland Wild Dog, and the acronym NGSD. Hardly anything is known about the life, genetic status, social structure, or numbers of these dogs in the wild. All research has been performed on the captive population. Bloodline information and the exact number of captive specimens are not available for publication at this time.

The New Guinea Singing Dogs were probably taken to New Guinea by early travelers thousands of years ago. Free to roam on the large island and isolated from the rest of the world, they developed without influence from other canids. The combination of isolation and long term development produced several characteristics found only in this canine. Today, many New Guinea Singing Dogs are serving as companion and therapy dogs as a part of conservation efforts to focus attention on their exceptional intelligence and physical abilities. Some have been shown in competitive dog shows. When shown in competition, New Guinea Singing Dogs are presented in their completely natural condition with no trimming or alterations of any kind.[1]

History and classification

The first Singing Dog was taken from New Guinea in 1897. At that time many naturalists killed their specimens and studied them later. Such was the case with the first New Guinea Dingo. It was shot and killed by Sir William MacGregor on Mount Scratchley at an elevation of 7,000 feet.

He sent both the skin and the skeleton, preserved in alcohol, to the Queensland Museum. He described the dog as 11 1/2 inches at the shoulder and primarily black in colour. White markings trimmed the neck, the throat, chest and tip of the tail. Therefore, the first Singer to leave New Guinea was black and white and was in the year 1897.

Fourteen years passed without scientific activity. Finally, in 1911 C.W. DeVis assembled and studied the 1897 black and white coloured specimen. Professor Wood Jones also examined the carcass. Seventeen years passed until the skin and skeleton were again examined in 1928 by H.A. Longman. From 1897 until 1954, this single specimen comprised the scientific community's entire body of knowledge regarding the New Guinea Singing Dog.

Two Singers were captured by Ellis Troughton in 1954, but he underestimated their escape capabilities. They went straight for the local poultry. Many were killed. A political nightmare ensued and the dogs were given to local natives who killed and ate them.

In 1956, medical assistant Albert Speer and Officer J.P. Sinclair obtained a pair of Singing Dogs in the Lavanni Valley, in the southern highlands. These dogs were sent to Sir Edward Hallstrom who had set up a native animal study center in the western highlands, in Nondugi. He studied them for a time and then sent them on to Taronga Zoo in Sidney. There is no reference as to the coloration of these two Singers.[2]

There has been considerable controversy regarding the taxonomic classification of New Guinea Dingoes. In 1958, Dr Ellis Troughton examined the two Singer specimens from the Taronga Zoo in Sydney.[3] Subsequently, the New Guinea Singing Dog was classified as a distinct species and was named Canis hallstromi (in honor of Sir Edward Hallstrom). Singing Dogs have been reclassified several times and have variously been called Canis lupus hallstromi or Canis familiaris hallstromi. They have been classed as variants of the dingo or domestic dog. They have been called Canis dingo and Canis dingo hallstromi.[4]

Most authors class the New Guinea Singing Dog either as either a separate species or a domestic dog. However Singers are classed, several facts are constant: The NGSD is not genetically or ecologically exchangeable with any other canid population and the NGSD is an evolutionarily significant unit.[5] Mammal Species of the World lists these dogs as part of Canis lupus dingo provisionally separate from Canis lupus familiaris.[6]
Singing Dogs can tolerate a variety of climates.

Laurie Corbett, in his book, "The Dingo in Australia and in Asia" (1995} concluded that dingoes were Canis lupus dingo, and as such, are descended from the Grey Wolf.

Dr. Alan Wilton and his co-researchers[7] have proven Singers are genetically matched to Australian Dingoes.

Applying definitions by Fleming et al (2001), New Guinea Singing Dogs should be considered "commensal". According to Peter Fleming, a "commensal" dog is a canine that lives or lived in close association with, but independent of humans. Non-socialized Singing Dogs shun human contact. Fleming's definition for "commensal" is appropriate for describing this shy, aloof, independent and non-aggressive canine.[8]

Build

Compared to other species of the genus Canis, the New Guinea Singing Dog is described as relatively short-legged and broad-headed. These dogs have an average shoulder height of 31–46 cm(13-16 in.) and weigh 9–14 kg(17-25 lbs.). They do not have rear dewclaws.[5]

The limbs and spine of Singers are very flexible, and they can spread their legs sideways to 90°. Another dog with comparable flexibility is the Norwegian Lundehund. Furthermore, they can rotate their front and hind paws more than domestic dogs, which enables them to climb trees with thick bark or branches that can be reached from the ground; however their climbing skills do not reach the same level as those of the gray fox.[9]
Night-picture with noticeable visible green-blacing tapetum.

The eyes, which are highly reflective, are almond-shaped and are angled upwards from the inner to outer corners with dark eye rims. Eye color ranges from dark amber to dark-brown. Their eyes glow bright green when bright lights are shined in at them in low light conditions. Researchers believe there are two reasons for the bright reflective glow; not only do the pupils open wider and allow in more light than in other dog breeds, there is also a higher concentration of cells in the tapetum. These two features allow singing dogs to see more clearly in low light, a trait which is unusual in canids.

New Guinea Singing Dogs have erect, pointed, fur-lined ears. As with other wild dogs, the ears perk or lay forward. The ears of domestic dogs lie back. Traits such as forward perking ears are important survival features for this species. The ears can be rotated like a directional receiver in order to pick up the faintest of sounds. Singers' ears are also used to express numerous moods and intentions.

Singer tails should be bushy, long enough to reach the hock, free of kinks, and have a white tip. The tail may be carried erect and curved up over the back in a confident or contented position. A "tucked" tail (one that is held tightly between the back legs) expresses fear, anxiety, illness or pain. They hold their tails straight back when hunting/searching or when moderately anxious or afraid.

Fur

Pups are born with a dark chocolate brown pelt with gold flecks and reddish tinges, which changes to light brown by the age of six weeks. Adult coloration occurs around four months of age. For adult dogs in the wild, the colors brown, black and tan or black have been reported, all with white points. For dogs in captivity, the colors brown, black with tan on the snout, legs and belly and dark (brown with a strong upper layer of dark-tipped guard hair) have been verified. Brown colored variants include: light brown, reddish-brown or reddish-yellow with lighter shades on the belly, inner surface of the legs and the ventral brush of the tail. The sides of the neck and zonal stripes behind the scapula are golden. Black and very dark guard hair is generally lightly allocated over the hair of the spine, concentrating on the back of the ears and the surface of the tail over the white tip. The muzzle is always black on young individuals. Generally, all colors have white markings underneath the chin, on the paws, chest and tail tip. About one third also have white markings on the muzzle, face and neck. Brindled individuals have not been observed. By 7 years, the black muzzle begins to turn gray.[5]

Vocalization

The New Guinea Singing Dog has a distinctive and melodious howl, which is characterized by a sharp increase in pitch at the start and very high frequencies at the end.[10] According to observations made by Ortolani, the howling of these dogs can be clearly differentiated from that of Australian dingoes, and differs significantly from that of grey wolves and coyotes.
Singers have a distinctive "song" unlike any other animal.

An individual howl lasts for 0.5–5 seconds (3 seconds on average). At the start, the frequency rises and stays rather stable for the rest of the howling, but normally shows abrupt changes in frequency. Modulations can change quickly every 300-500 milliseconds or every second. Five to eight overtones can generally be distinguished in a spectrographic analysis of the howling.[5]

During chorus howling, one dog starts and others join in shortly afterward. In most cases, chorus howling is well synchronized, and the howls of the group end nearly simultaneously. Spontaneous howling is most common during the morning and evening hours.[11]

A trill, with a distinctly "bird-like" character, is emitted during high arousal. It is a high-frequency pulsed signal whose spectral appearance suggests a continuous source that is periodically interrupted, and might last as long as 800 milliseconds. Such a sound is not known for any other canid; however, a similar sound (with lower frequency) has been described for a dhole at the Moscow Zoo.[5]

When they are kept with dogs that bark, Singers may mimic the other dogs.[11]

Behavior

Flannery’s short 1988 report on dogs in the mountains of Papua New Guinea is regarded as the only available report on direct observation of wild specimens. He described them as "extraordinarily shy" and "almost preternaturally canny".[12] According to Robert Bino (a student from the University of Papua New Guinea) these dogs use their resting places under roots and ledges in New Guinea only sporadically. Bino theorized that these dogs are highly mobile and forage alone and concluded that they therefore might use several hiding places in their home range.[13]

During research observations the examined dogs generally showed a lower threshold of behavior (e.g. scent rolling) than other domestic dogs, as well as an earlier developmental onset than other domestic dogs or grey wolves (e.g. hackle biting at 2 weeks compared to other domestic dogs/grey wolves at 6 weeks) and a quantitative difference (e.g. reduced expression of intraspecific affiliate behaviors). The dogs observed did not show the typical canid play bow; however Imke Voth found this behavior during examinations in the 1980s.[14]

Several unique behaviors have been exhibited by New Guinea Singing Dogs.[5]:

* Head toss: This behavior, shown by every observed dog, is a prompt for attention, food or a sign of frustration, expressed in varying degrees depending on the level of arousal. In the complete expression, the head is swept to one side, nose rotated through a 90° arc to midline, then rapidly returned to the starting position. The entire sequence takes 1–2 seconds. The mildest expression is a slight flick of the head to the side and back. During this behavior, the characteristic contrasting black and white chin markings are displayed.
* Copulatory scream: At the copulatory tie, the female emits a repetitive sequence of loud, high-pitched yelps lasting about 3 minutes. This scream has a strong arousal effect on most domestic dogs within auditory range.
* Copulatory contractions: About 3 minutes after the start of the tie, females begin a series of rhythmic abdominal contractions. During each contraction, the skin of the flanks and lumbar area is drawn forward. These contractions are accompanied by groans and occur regularly, several seconds apart (they may pause intermittently), continuing for the length of the tie.
* Additionally, Singers have an unusual form of auto-erotic stimulation, which includes a strong tendency to target the genitals for both playful and aggressive bites, a cheek-rub that may be a marking behavior and a tooth-gnashing threat.

During estrus, when potential partners are present, same-sex Singers often fight to the point of severe injury. Furthermore, adults also display a high degree of aggression towards unfamiliar dogs, which would indicate that they are strongly territorial.[5] Their distinctive aggression could not be observed to that extent among Australian dingoes (who live without human contact).[11]

Based on dogs in captivity, it has been theorized that wild singing dogs do not form permanent packs. All sightings in the wild were of single dogs or pairs[5] and, according to observations by Imke Voth in the 1980s, some dogs are more comfortable in pairs and others in small groups.[11]

Researchers have noted rough play behavior by the mothers towards their pups, which often switched over to agonistic behavior, as well as "handling". The mothers did not adequately react to the pup's shouts of pain but rather interpreted it as further "invitation" for "playing". The researchers stated that this behavior was noted in their subjects only and does not necessarily apply to all Singers.[11]

During observations of Singers by Brian Hare, where food was placed under one of two bowls and one person pointed to the bowl with the food, only a few dogs had a higher success rate than 50% for going to the right bowl. It was therefore assumed that the success was pure coincidence, and that Singers have little interest in reading human gestures.[15]

Reproduction
Old Dingo descended from the original pair that came to the U.S.A. in 1961. He lived for over 20 years.

Like other dingo types, female Singers come into heat once a year rather than twice a year normally associated with domestic breeds. Their breeding season generally starts in August and ends during December. Gestation averages 63 days. In the Tierpark Berlin 80% of the litters were born in October and November and the gestation period was 58 to 64 days. The litter size was 1 to 6 pups.[16] Informants from New Guinea reported sightings of wild pups in December, which allows for the conclusion, that Singers, if they still exist in the wild, have a similar cycle. Reports of 25 bitches in captivity showed that when they did not conceive during their first annual estrous, about 65% have a second estrous cycle, sometimes even a third,[17] 8–16 weeks later.[5]

Males in captivity often participate in raising the pups, including the regurgitation of food. Female Singers are protective of their young and will aggressively attack their male counterpart if they feel he poses a danger to the puppies. During the first breeding season following their birth, especially if there is a potential mate present, pups are often aggressively attacked by the same-sex parent.[5]

Diet

There has been no conclusive evidence that NGSD still exist in the wild. However, reports from local sources in Papua New Guinea from the 1970s and the mid-1990s indicate that Singer-like wild dogs found in New Guinea, whether they were pure Singers or hybrids, fed on small to middle-sized marsupials, rodents, birds and fruits. In fact, remnants of rodents were found in dog scat in the 1970s. Robert Bino stated that they their prey consists of rats, cuscus, wallabies, dwarf cassowaries and other birds.[5][17]

Distribution

The reported wild range of the New Guinea Singing Dog consists of the mountains and swampy mountain regions of Papua New Guinea at an altitude of 2500 to 4700 meters. The main vegetation zones are (lowest to highest): mixed forest; beech and mossy forest; sub-alpine coniferous forest and alpine grassland. Based on archaeological, ethnographic, and circumstantial evidence, it can be assumed that Singers were once distributed over the whole of New Guinea (bone findings of dogs in the lowlands of New Guinea were estimated with an age of 5,500 years) and later restricted to the upper mountains.[5] Since there have been no verified sightings of these dogs in Papua New Guinea since the 1970s, these dogs are either rare in these areas nowadays, or possibly extinct.[10] Up to 1976 there were scientific reports of Singers in the Star Mountains and in 1989 Dr. Tim Flannery was able to take a picture of a black-and-tan dog in a place called Dokfuma, that lies in the same mountains.[12] In 1996 Robert Bino undertook a field study of these dogs. He was not able to observe any wild Singers and instead used signs like scats, paw prints, urine markings and prey remnants to make conclusions about the behavior of Singers. There are reports from local residents that wild dogs have been seen or heard in higher reaches of the mountains.[9] A more recent example was the fleeting glimpse of a dog at Lake Tawa in the Kaijende Highlands. Local assistants assured the researchers that the dogs at Lake Tawa were wild-living dogs since there were no villages near that location.[18]

Some authors disagree with the argument that there have been no verified Singer sightings for a long time and believe that there are still remote populations. They argue that the wild living dogs of the highlands are probably Singers.[17]

A field study of note

One of the most detailed field studies of New Guinea Highland Wild Dogs was conducted in 1996 by James McIntyre. Mr. McIntyre spent considerable time trying to trap a Singer, but was not successful. After weeks of searching he came away from New Guinea having seen only signs such as tracks and feces. Mr. McIntyre was able to confirm that as of 1996 wild dogs of some genetic form did exist in the mountains of New Guinea. A visual sighting was never attained nor, apparently, was any sample obtained or analyzed to establish the wild dogs' genetic background. His observations, in diary form, absolutely confirm the wild dogs' ability to remain hidden and solitary from human contact.[19]

Relationship with humans

The Singing Dogs of New Guinea have lifted their voice in song since time immemorial. During the early days, the dogs were common throughout the island. In the highland areas the dogs occasionally kept company with man, but more often they lived wild and free. In the lowland villages they were more apt to take up residence with the many humans inhabiting the area. It is from these lowland tribes that we gain a true understanding of the Singing Dog's place in these primitive societies. The introduction of foreign culture was to alter forever the role of the Singing Dog. "Singing Dogs are very gentle and friendly with people, though inclined to be a bit shy with strangers at first," wrote New York owner Phillip Persky. "They are not at all aggressive with people" Sharon McKenzie said. "I've never heard of a case of a Singing Dog biting anyone." "They are notorious escape artists," Mr. Persky reported, "and can climb and jump with cat-like agility, so enclosures have to be secure." They are great diggers and can climb fences as easily as a squirrel. They can get through a space you would not have thought a snake could get through," Sharon laughed. "This is the only breed I know of in which bitches are dominant," Sharon observed. "Bitches really call the shots."[2]
A Singer at home in Chicago.

According to reports from the late 1950s and mid 1970s wild dogs believed to be Singers were shy and avoided contact with humans. It was reported in the mid 1970s that the Kalam in the highlands of Papua caught young Singers and raised them as hunting aids but did not breed them. Some of these dogs probably stayed with the Kalam and reproduced. The Eipo tribe kept and bred wild dogs as playmates for their children. Although the majority of the Highland tribes never used village dogs as a food source, it is known that even today they attempt to catch, kill and eat wild dogs. Some local myths mention these dogs as bringers of fire and speech or as the spirits of the deceased. Dog-findings in archaeological sites of New Guinea are rare, mostly consisting of teeth (used as ornaments)and trophy-skulls. One grave has been discovered. The earliest Singer remains was a tooth found in the lowlands. It was estimated to be about 5,500 years old. Findings from the highlands were thought to be of similar age, on a stratigraphical basis, but as of 2001 had not been dated.
A red Singer sitting next to a black & tan.

Since the beginning of the 20th century the inhabitants of the highlands started to keep chickens and Singers had a penchant for poultry. To add to the problem, natives kept other domestic dogs and other crossbreeds. The crossbred dogs were generally larger in size as well as less of a challenge to train so they tended to be of more value than Singing Dogs. In the past some tribes of New Guinea consumed dog meat as part of their rituals. Other tribes had a strict taboo concerning the consumption of wild dog meat. It is assumed that the relationship between the modern day inhabitants and their dogs will give information about how they treated the Singers, but modern "Village Dogs" are not genetically representative of pure New Guinea Singing Dogs.[5][9][17]

Origin and taxonomic status

For these dogs an origin in Indonesia or South-East Asia is likely; however, the exact location and date is unknown. Genetic analyses also indicate towards an origin in East Asia.[20] These dogs were most likely brought to Papua New Guinea by humans; the dogs could not have covered the distance between the islands by swimming, since even at lowest sea level the distance would have been too great. Findings indicate that there were dogs about 5,500 years ago, which at least looked similar to the Singers.[5]

The New Guinea Singing Dog is classified as a dog breed of Papua New Guinea in the Domestic Animal Information System of the FAO.[21] Singing Dogs may be registered with the United Kennel Club.[22]
Singing Dogs are known for their intense, curious nature.

As stated earlier in this article there is controversy regarding the origin of New Guinea Dingoes. Some people argue that they were transported to New Guinea as a tamed wild animal to serve as a hunting aid or as human food. There is no proof for domestication and they do not show the characteristic morphological features of domestication. Singers may have developed blood enzymes specific to the breed after arriving in New Guinea or they may have inherited them from a different ancestor than that of modern domestic dogs. The possibility of interbreeding between Singers and other domestic dogs is not regarded as a reason that the two belong to the same species, since all members of the genus Canis are capable of producing fertile hybrids and have mixed in the wild. Genetically and ecologically the New Guinea Singing Dog is not replaceable with any other canid-population and the available data indicates that the New Guinea Singing Dog demonstrates a unique evolutionary entity, possible a sister-taxon of the Australian Dingo. Since the Singer had diagnostic characteristics that differentiate it from other members of the genus Canis, the name Canis hallstromi should be used to identify it as a distinguishable taxonomic entity inside the genus Canis. Although these assumptions were based on captive Singers, this was regarded as irrelevant, since it was assumed that the described, regarded as unique, characteristics probably could not have developed during captivity. It was further suspected that these dogs would be an example on how dogs looked in the time before domestication and that their keeping by the inhabitants of Papua New Guinea would not really match the common concept of domestication.[5] In addition the ecological balance between the Singers and their prey was regarded as evidence that these dogs were not domesticated when they arrived on the island. As a further argument against the status of the Singer as a feral domestic dog the author states that there exist no reports of demographically self-sustaining feral dog populations that are not at least partially dependent on humans. Even in the absence of other large predators, domestic dogs never become totally independent predators.[17]

Kristofer M. Helgen disagreed. He said that these dogs are biologically interesting and deserve further ecological study, but neither molecular nor morphological evidence support the claim for taxonomic status as a separate species, particularly in the light of the morphological plasticity of the domesticated dog. It has been these kinds of scientific arguments that have thrown New Guinea Singing Dogs into a boiling pot of controversy.[18]

Genetic status
Singing Dogs have highly developed senses.

During genetic analysis regarding the origin of the Australian dingo, the scientists found the mtDNA-type A29 among Australian dingoes, as well as domestic dogs from the islands of South-East Asia, North America, East Asia and New Guinea Singings Dogs. This mtDNA-type fell in a phylogenetic tree of wolf-and dog-types right in the main clade of domestic dog mtDNA-types (70 % of the mtDNA-types). Furthermore the Singers had a unique mtDNA-type that differed from A29 by two point mutations: This showed the real possibility of a shared origin with Australian dingoes, as well as a genetic exchange and affiliation with the domestic dog. Are the dingoes of Australia descended from New Guinea Singing Dogs or the other way around? Since Papua New Guinea and Australia were connected via a land-bridge until 6,000 years ago, traveling from one to the other would for all intents and purposes have been possible.[20] Further DNA-analysis may show that Thai dingoes are also closely related to New Guinea Singing Dogs. It has been theorized that Singers and Australian Dingoes might demonstrate a genetic line that separated itself from other dogs about 4,600 to 10,800 years ago. As long as nothing contrary was proven, a person has to assume that the current isolation of NGSD from village dogs makes interbreeding/hybridization unlikely.[17]

The most current genetic study was completed by Dr. Alan Wilton from the UNSW School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences. Thirty-seven researchers from across the globe took part. News of the study was released to newspapers worldwide on March 18, 2010. The study revolved around analysis of 48,000 genome sites found in hundreds of wolves and over a thousand dogs. The overwhelming conclusions from the study showed that genetically, the Australian Dingo and the New Guinea Singing Dog are closely related to one another and are probably the world's oldest dogs. Additionally, the study concluded that the NGSD and Australian Dingo stand out as being the most different from other dogs and closest to wolves. They found dingoes and New Guinea Singing Dogs to be the oldest of the ancient breeds, dating back at least 4,000 years. Singers belong in the Asian group, sharing it with dingo, Basenji, Chinese Shar-pei, Chow-chow and Akita.[23] This internationally recognized study collated at American universities UCLA and Cornell was published in the science journal Nature.[24][25][26][27]

There was a time when the New Guinea Singing Dog was not considered worthy of study, since they were considered feral domestic dogs. Nowadays however, archaeozoologists who promote protection of these dogs argue that Singers are a living relic of the earliest dogs and at least a part of the heritage of the people of Papua New Guinea. The Singer is regarded as being worthy of protection, since the captive population is highly inbred and the wild population is probably excluded from several parts of its original distribution area.[5] The Department of Environment and Conservation in New Guinea only announced protection measures.[10]

The importance of the New Guinea Dingo lies in its evolutionary age and purity as an evolutionary unit. These facts together with several unique genetic, behavioral, ecological, reproductive and morphological characteristics form the basis for its conservation.[5]

Synopsis

The NGSDs most unusual characteristic is its dramatic ability to vary the pitch of its howl. They do not bark repetitively but have a complex vocal behavior including yelps, whines, and single-note howls. NGSDs are active, lively, and alert. They are constantly exploring everything in their environment, using all five senses, including taste. Their incredible structural flexibility allows them to pass their bodies through any opening wide enough to admit their head. Their hunting drive is very intense and may overwhelm any training when prey is detected. They use their acute sense of hearing in addition to sight and scent to locate prey. Although gentle and affectionate with people they know, they can be aloof with strangers. NGSDs can be aggressive toward other dogs, especially of the same sex.[28]

Conservation and preservation

There are two organizations that exist for the sole purpose of conserving and preserving New Guinea Singing Dogs in their natural unaltered form. The organizations, New Guinea Singing Dog Conservation Society (NGSDCS) and New Guinea Singing Dog International (NGSDI) are both based in the United States. Links to their webpages are included in the links section of this article.

References

1. ^ "United Kennel Club". http://www.ukcdogs.com/WebSite.nsf/Breeds/NewGuineaSingingDog. Retrieved 21 September 2010.
2. ^ a b Flamholtz, Cathy J. (1991). A Celebration of Rare Breeds Vol.II. Centreville, AL U.S.A.: OTR Publications. pp. 147–151. ISBN 0940269066.
3. ^ Funk, Holger (2005). "Shiba and Dingo". http://www.shiba-dog.de/dingo-en.htm. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
4. ^ Janice Koler-Matznick (2004). "THE NEW GUINEA SINGING (WILD) DOG". Alien Press Inc. http://abstracts.co.allenpress.com/pweb/asm2004/document/38760. Retrieved 2010-04-06.
5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Janice Koler-Matznick, I. Lehr Brisbin Jr, Mark Feinstein, Susan Bulmer (2003-03-06). "An updated description of the New Guinea Singing Dog (Canis hallstromi, Troughton 1957)pg.116". The Zoological Society of London. http://newguinea-singing-dog-conservation.org/Tidbits/ZoolSociety.pdf. Retrieved 2010-04-06.
6. ^ "Canis lupus dingo". Mammal Species of the world. bucknell. http://www.bucknell.edu/msw3/browse.asp?id=14000751. Retrieved 2010-04-20. (English)
7. ^ Wilton, A.; et al (8 April 2010). "Genome-wide SNP and haplotype analyses reveal a rich history underlying dog domestication". Nature 464.
8. ^ "Canids:Foxes,Wolves,Jackals,and Dogs">Corbett, Laurie (2004). Canids: Foxes, Wolves, Jackals, and Dogs. The World Conservation Union. p. 223.
9. ^ a b c Janice Koler Matznick (2004-01-20). "The New Guinea Singing Dog". KENNEL CLUB BOOK. http://newguinea-singing-dog-conservation.org/Tidbits/BookExcerpts.pdf. Retrieved 2010-04-06.
10. ^ a b c Laurie Corbett (2004). "Dingo". Canids: Foxes, Wolves, Jackals and Dogs. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. http://www.carnivoreconservation.org/files/actionplans/canids.pdf. Retrieved 2010-02-26.
11. ^ a b c d e Dorit Urd Feddersen-Petersen (2008). Ausdrucksverhalten beim Hund. Stuttgart: Franckh-Kosmos Verlags-GmbH & Co. KG. ISBN 978-3-440-09863-9.
12. ^ a b Flannery, Tim (1995). Mammals of New Guinea (2nd ed.). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
13. ^ Bino, R. (1996). "Notes on Behavior of New Guinea Singing Dogs". Science in New Guinea 22 (1): pp. 43–47. Field Study of NGSD
14. ^ Janice Koler-Matznick, I. Lehr Brisbin, Jr. and Mark Feinstein (March 2005). "An Ethogram for the New Guinea Singing (Wild) Dog (Canis hallstromi)". The New Guinea Singing Dog Conservation Society. http://newguinea-singing-dog-conservation.org/Tidbits/Ethogram0405.pdf. Retrieved 2010-04-07.
15. ^ Steve Bradt (2007). "Man's smartest friend". Harvard University Gazette. http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2004/02.19/05-dog.html. Retrieved 2010-04-07.
16. ^ Christian Matschai (2005). "Haltung und Zucht von Hallstromhunden oder Urwalddingos (Cams lupus f. hallstromi) Tierpark Berlin" (in german). Der Zoologische Garten. http://d.wanfangdata.com.cn/NSTLQK_NSTL_QK8928870.aspx. Retrieved 2010-04-07. [dead link]
17. ^ a b c d e f Janice Koler-Matznick (2007). "The New Guinea Singing Dog: its status and scientific importance". Australian Mammalogy. http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/AM07005.htm. Retrieved 2010-04-07.
18. ^ a b Kristofer M. Helgen, Stephen J. Richards, Robert Sine, Wayne Takeuchi, Bruce M. Beehler (2007). "A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Kaijende Highlands, Enga Province, Papua New Guinea". Conservation International. http://www.conservation.org/Documents/RAP_Reports/RAP45_Kaijende_Highlands_PNG_Aug-2005.pdf. Retrieved 2010-04-28.
19. ^ McIntyre, James (1996). "Investigation into the status and conservation needs of the free-living New Guinea Singing Dog (Canus lupus dingo)". http://vanuatu.tripod.com/dogs.htm. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
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21. ^ Domestic Animal Diversity Information System of the FAO: New Guinea Singing dog
22. ^ "Dog New Guinea Singing Dog". United Kennel Club. 1998-01-01. http://www.ukcdogs.com/WebSite.nsf/Breeds/NewGuineaSinging. Retrieved 2010-04-26. [dead link]
23. ^ Wilton, Alan (April 2010). "Genome-Wide SNP and Haplotype Analyses Reveal a Rich History Underlying Dog Domestication". Nature 464.
24. ^ http://doglobby.org/2010/03/the-worlds-oldest-dog-breed-the-dingo
25. ^ http://www.perthnow.com.au/news/national/dingo-is-worlds-dog-oldest-breed/story-e6frg15u-1225842111309
26. ^ http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/home/dingoes-may-be-worlds-oldest-dogs/364457
27. ^ http://machineslikeus.com/news/dingo-may-be-worlds-oldest-dog
28. ^ "Dog New Guinea Singing Dog". United Kennel Club. 1998-01-01. http://www.ukcdogs.com/WebSite.nsf/Breeds/NewGuineaSinging. Retrieved 2010-06-06. [dead link]