Plegadis chihi

Life-forms

Superregnum: Eukaryota
Cladus: Unikonta
Cladus: Opisthokonta
Cladus: Holozoa
Regnum: Animalia
Subregnum: Eumetazoa
Cladus: Bilateria
Cladus: Nephrozoa
Superphylum: Deuterostomia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Infraphylum: Gnathostomata
Megaclassis: Osteichthyes
Cladus: Sarcopterygii
Cladus: Rhipidistia
Cladus: Tetrapodomorpha
Cladus: Eotetrapodiformes
Cladus: Elpistostegalia
Superclassis: Tetrapoda
Cladus: Reptiliomorpha
Cladus: Amniota
Classis: Reptilia
Cladus: Eureptilia
Cladus: Romeriida
Subclassis: Diapsida
Cladus: Sauria
Infraclassis: Archosauromorpha
Cladus: Crurotarsi
Divisio: Archosauria
Cladus: Avemetatarsalia
Cladus: Ornithodira
Subtaxon: Dinosauromorpha
Cladus: Dinosauriformes
Cladus: Dracohors
Cladus: Dinosauria
Cladus: Saurischia
Cladus: Eusaurischia
Subordo: Theropoda
Cladus: Neotheropoda
Cladus: Averostra
Cladus: Tetanurae
Cladus: Avetheropoda
Cladus: Coelurosauria
Cladus: Tyrannoraptora
Cladus: Maniraptoromorpha
Cladus: Maniraptoriformes
Cladus: Maniraptora
Cladus: Pennaraptora
Cladus: Paraves
Cladus: Eumaniraptora
Cladus: Avialae
Infraclassis: Aves
Cladus: Avebrevicauda
Cladus: Pygostylia
Cladus: Ornithothoraces
Cladus: Ornithuromorpha
Cladus: Carinatae
Parvclassis: Neornithes
Cohors: Neognathae
Cladus: Neoaves
Cladus: Aequornithes
Ordo: Pelecaniformes

Familia: Threskiornithidae
Genus: Plegadis
Species: Plegadis chihi
Name

Plegadis chihi (Vieillot, 1817)
Synonymy

Numenius chihi (protonym)

References

Vieillot, L.P. 1817. Nouveau Dictionnaire d’Histoire naturelle, appliquée aux arts, à l'agriculture, à l'économie rurale et domestique, à la médecine, etc. Par une société de naturalistes et d'agriculteurs. Avec des figures tirées des trois règnes de la nature. Tome 8. 610 pp. +10 tt. Déterville, Paris. p. 303 BHLReference page.

Vernacular names
беларуская: Акуляравая каравайка
brezhoneg: Ibiz dremm wenn
čeština: Ibis americký
dansk: Hvidmasket Ibis
Deutsch: Brillensichler
English: White-faced Ibis
español: Morito cariblanco
suomi: Amerikanpronssi-iibis
français: Ibis à face blanche
magyar: Fehérarcú batla
italiano: Ibis facciabianca
日本語: カオジロブロンズトキ
Nederlands: Witmaskeribis
norsk: Hvitgrimeibis
polski: Ibis amerykański
português do Brasil: Caraúna-de-cara-branca
português: Caraúna
русский: Очковая каравайка
slovenčina: Ibisovec okuliarnatý
svenska: Vitpannad bronsibis
Türkçe: Ak yüzlü aynak
中文: 白脸彩鹮

The white-faced ibis (Plegadis chihi) is a wading bird in the ibis family, Threskiornithidae.

This species breeds colonially in marshes, usually nesting in bushes or low trees. Its breeding range extends from the western United States south through Mexico, as well as from southeastern Brazil and southeastern Bolivia south to central Argentina, and along the coast of central Chile. Its winter range extends from southern California and Louisiana south to include the rest of its breeding range.
Description

In its non-breeding plumage, the white-faced ibis is very similar to the glossy ibis except that it tends to be slightly smaller and its plumage has a somewhat warmer color. Breeding adults have a pink, bare face bordered with white feathers (rather than a bluish bare face with no bordering feathers), a grey bill, and brighter-colored, redder legs. Adults have red eyes year-round, whereas glossy ibises have dark eyes. Juveniles of the two species are nearly identical.[2]

Measurements:[3]

Length: 18.1-22.1 in (46-56 cm)
Weight: 15.9-18.5 oz (450-525 g)
Wingspan: 35.4-36.6 in (90-93 cm)

Distribution

The white-faced ibis occurs in Canada, the United States, and Central America, and a second subspecies inhabits the southern half of South America, east of the Andes Mountains.[1] In 2012, the total population size was estimated to be 1.2 million individuals, and increasing. The IUCN rates it as being of Least Concern.[1]

Migration and interchange between North and South American subspecies does not occur. Within North America, birds breeding in northern areas of the range move south to wintering areas.[4] For example, breeders in northern California and southern Oregon move to wintering areas in southern California and México or Central America. Some birds breeding in Yellowstone in Wyoming will overwinter in areas such as Texas and coastal Gulf of Mexico regions.
A flock of White-faced Ibis take flight.
Origin

The white-faced ibis bears a strong resemblance to the related glossy ibis, and in the past was sometimes considered to be a subspecies of the glossy ibis.[5] Another theory was that a small population of glossy ibis dispersed to the Americas, which became isolated and evolved into a separate species.[6] However, recent molecular phylogenetic studies show that the white-faced ibis may actually be paraphyletic.[7] In fact, members of the white-faced ibis populations in the United States appear to be more closely related to glossy ibises than to members of white-faced ibis populations in Southern Brazil.[7]
Feeding

The white-faced ibis eats a variety of organisms, including many invertebrates such as insects, leeches, snails, crayfish and earthworms. It may also eat vertebrates such as fish, newts, and frogs.[8][9] Its feeding style is to use its bill to probe for prey.
A White-faced Ibis in flight.
Breeding and nesting
Juvenile feeding

This species breeds colonially in marshes, usually nesting in bushes or low trees. Its breeding range extends from the western United States south through Mexico, as well as from southeastern Brazil and southeastern Bolivia south to central Argentina, and along the coast of central Chile. Its winter range extends from southern California and Louisiana south to include the rest of its breeding range. The white-faced ibis chooses to nest in the parts of a marsh with dense vegetation [8] such as bulrush, cattails, shrubs, and short trees.[10] It will then build a nest from reeds. The white-faced ibis usually lays three or four blue-green eggs at a time.[6]
Lifespan

White-faced ibises in captivity live up to fourteen years on average. In the wild, white-faced ibises usually live for nine years; however, the oldest recorded wild white-faced ibis lived for fourteen years and six months.[10]
Threats

In the past, the white-faced ibis faced many threats from humans. Studies completed in Utah in the 1960s (before this species was added to the Migratory Bird Treaty Act) showed that 82.9% of recorded deaths in banded birds were a result of being shot.[5] However, the main causes of the decline of this species previously were pesticides and habitat destruction.[6] The pesticide DDT caused eggshells to be so thin and fragile that parent white-faced ibises crushed the eggs when they were incubating them.[6] Also, since this species is so dependent on wetlands and marshes for both feeding and nesting, changes to water systems such as pollution and man-made draining of water habitats had devastating impacts on members of this species in the past.[8][9] In order to correct these damages, DDT was banned in 1970 and various programs were created to better maintain and protect wetland nesting habitats.[11] Yet, there is still some debate whether populations of white-faced ibises in all geographic areas are recovered and growing.[11]
References

BirdLife International (2016). "Plegadis chihi". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T22697426A93613243. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22697426A93613243.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
"White-faced Ibis". Birding Hawaii. 2004. Archived from the original on 2012-11-05. Retrieved 2013-12-23.
"White-faced Ibis Identification, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology". www.allaboutbirds.org. Retrieved 2020-09-26.
"White-faced Ibis". Audubon. 13 November 2014.
Ryder, Ronald. (1967) “Distribution, Migration and Mortality of the White-Faced Ibis (Plegadis chihi) in North America”. Bird-Banding 38: 257-277.
Audubon White-faced Ibis, Retrieved 11 April 2014
Ramirez, J. L., C. Y. Miyaki, and S. N. Del Lama. "Molecular phylogeny of Threskiornithidae (Aves: Pelecaniformes) based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA." Genetics and Molecular Research 12.3 (2013): 2740-2750.
Great Basin Bird Observatory White-faced Ibis, Retrieved 22 April 2014
Texas Parks and Wildlife White-faced Ibis, Retrieved 11 April 2014
Ryder, Ronald A. and David E. Manry.(2005)"White-faced Ibis (Plegadis chihi)”, The Birds of North America Online” (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online:,
D. Dark-Smiley and D. Keinath. (2003) “Species Assessment for White-faced Ibis”. United States Department of the Interior Bureau of Land Management.