Melanerpes candidus

Melanerpes carolinus

Superregnum: Eukaryota
Cladus: Unikonta
Cladus: Opisthokonta
Cladus: Holozoa
Regnum: Animalia
Subregnum: Eumetazoa
Cladus: Bilateria
Cladus: Nephrozoa
Superphylum: Deuterostomia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Infraphylum: Gnathostomata
Megaclassis: Osteichthyes
Cladus: Sarcopterygii
Cladus: Rhipidistia
Cladus: Tetrapodomorpha
Cladus: Eotetrapodiformes
Cladus: Elpistostegalia
Superclassis: Tetrapoda
Cladus: Reptiliomorpha
Cladus: Amniota
Classis: Reptilia
Cladus: Eureptilia
Cladus: Romeriida
Subclassis: Diapsida
Cladus: Sauria
Infraclassis: Archosauromorpha
Cladus: Crurotarsi
Divisio: Archosauria
Cladus: Avemetatarsalia
Cladus: Ornithodira
Subtaxon: Dinosauromorpha
Cladus: Dinosauriformes
Cladus: Dracohors
Cladus: Dinosauria
Cladus: Saurischia
Cladus: Eusaurischia
Subordo: Theropoda
Cladus: Neotheropoda
Cladus: Averostra
Cladus: Tetanurae
Cladus: Avetheropoda
Cladus: Coelurosauria
Cladus: Tyrannoraptora
Cladus: Maniraptoromorpha
Cladus: Maniraptoriformes
Cladus: Maniraptora
Cladus: Pennaraptora
Cladus: Paraves
Cladus: Eumaniraptora
Cladus: Avialae
Infraclassis: Aves
Cladus: Avebrevicauda
Cladus: Pygostylia
Cladus: Ornithothoraces
Cladus: Ornithuromorpha
Cladus: Carinatae
Parvclassis: Neornithes
Cohors: Neognathae
Cladus: Neoaves
Ordo: Piciformes

Familia: Picidae
Subfamilia: Picinae
Genus: Melanerpes
Species: Melanerpes candidus
Name

Melanerpes candidus (Otto, 1796)
References

Herrn von Buffon's Naturgeschichte der Vogel 23 p. 191

Vernacular names
English: White Woodpecker
español: Carpintero Blanco
suomi: Valkotikka
français: Pic dominicain
magyar: Fehér küllő
português: Pica-pau-branco

The white woodpecker (Melanerpes candidus) is a South American species of woodpecker (family Picidae) native to the wooded grasslands of Suriname, French Guiana, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina. It is a bright white bird with black wings and a distinctive small bright yellow eye patch. The IUCN has rated it as a "least-concern species".
Taxonomy

The species was first described as Melanerpes candidus in 1796 by the French naturalist Bernhard Christian Otto, the type locality being Cayenne. It is sometimes placed in its own genus Leuconerpes, but shows many similarities in morphology to Melanerpes. No subspecies are known (monotypic).[3]
Description
White woodpecker at Weltvogelpark Walsrode, Germany

This woodpecker grows to a length of 24 to 29 cm (9.4 to 11.4 in) and weighs around 108 g (3.8 oz), with a range of 98 to 131 g (3.5 to 4.6 oz). It is one of the largest Melanerpes woodpeckers along with the Jamaican woodpecker and Lewis' woodpecker.[4][5] The mantle, back, wings and tail of the adult are black, the flight feathers being brownish-black above and the underside of the wings being greyish-black. The crown, face, rump and underparts are white, sometimes with some buff shading. The male has some yellowing of the breast and nape which the female lacks, and both sexes have a certain amount of yellow on the belly. A narrow black stripe runs from behind the eye to the nape. There is a bare ring of yellow skin around the eye which has a yellowish iris. The beak is long and grey, paler near the base, and the legs are grey. Juveniles are browner and less glossy than the adults, with the pale areas being buff rather than white. The orbital ring on juveniles is grey rather than yellow, and both sexes may have some yellow on the nape.[6]
Distribution and habitat

The white woodpecker has a large distribution in South America to the east of the Andes. Its range extends from Suriname and French Guiana, through much of Brazil to southeastern Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay and northern Argentina. It is found at altitudes of up to about 2,000 m (6,600 ft), and is non-migratory, but prone to making short distance movements. Its habitat is forest edges, open dry woodland, wooded savannah, scrubland with scattered trees, plantations, orchards, parkland and mangroves. It is opportunistic and adaptable, being seen in city suburbs, and expanding its range into areas of felled timber.[6]
Ecology

Groups of up to ten white woodpeckers are sometimes seen flying with floppy wing-beats in procession. The diet is varied and includes fruits, berries and seeds, the bird being a significant disperser of some species of seed. It forages in noisy family groups[6] and also raids wild bee and wasp nests, feeding on the adult insects, larvae and honey.[3] It breeds between September and November. It may sometimes nest communally, but very little is known of its breeding habits.[3]
Status

M. candidus has an extremely large range estimated at over 10,000,000 km2 (3,900,000 sq mi), and seems to be extending its range at the southern end of its distribution. Although it is a generally uncommon bird with a somewhat patchy distribution, the total population is thought to be increasing, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of "least concern".[1]
References

BirdLife International (2016). "Melanerpes candidus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T22680798A92878939. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680798A92878939.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
Buffon, Georges Louis Leclerc (1796). Herrn von Buffons Naturgeschichte der Vögel (in German). Berlin: Pauli.
Winkler, H.; Christie, D.A.; Kirwan, G.M. (2017). "White woodpecker (Melanerpes candidus)". Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. Retrieved 10 May 2017.
Winkler, H., D. A. Christie, and G. M. Kirwan (2020). White Woodpecker (Melanerpes candidus), version 1.0. In Birds of the World (J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, J. Sargatal, D. A. Christie, and E. de Juana, Editors). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA.
Dunning, John B. Jr., ed. (2008). CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-6444-5.
Gorman, Gerard (2014). Woodpeckers of the World: A Photographic Guide. Firefly Books. pp. 103–104. ISBN 978-1770853096.

The red-bellied woodpecker (Melanerpes carolinus) is a medium-sized woodpecker of the family Picidae. It breeds mainly in the eastern United States, ranging as far south as Florida and as far north as Canada. Though it has a vivid orange-red crown and nape it is not to be confused with the red-headed woodpecker, a separate species of woodpecker in the same genus with an entirely red head and neck that sports a solid black back and white belly. The red-bellied earns its name from the pale reddish tint on its lower underside.
Taxonomy

The English naturalist Mark Catesby described and illustrated the red-bellied woodpecker in his book The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands which was published between 1729 and 1732. Catesby used the English name "The Red-bellied Wood-pecker" and the Latin Picus ventre rubro.[2] When in 1758 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae for the tenth edition, he included the red-bellied woodpecker, coined the binomial name Picus carolinus and cited Catesby's book. Linnaeus specified the type locality as America septentrionali (North America).[3] The locality is now restricted to South Carolina.[4] The red-bellied woodpecker is one of 24 species now placed in the genus Melanerpes that was introduced by the English ornithologist William John Swainson in 1832.[5][6] The species is monotypic: no subspecies are recognised.[6]
Description
Adult female – showing reddish lower belly

Adults are mainly light gray on the face and underparts; they have black and white barred patterns on their back, wings and tail. Adult males have a red cap going from the bill to the nape; females have a red patch on the nape and another above the bill. The reddish tinge on the belly that gives the bird its name is difficult to see in field identification.[7] White patches become visible on the wings in flight.[8] Red-bellied woodpeckers are 22.85 to 26.7 cm (9.00 to 10.51 in) long, have a wingspan of 38 to 46 cm (15 to 18 in),[7] and weigh 2.0–3.2 oz (57–91 g).[9]
Vocalizations

Red-bellied woodpeckers are noisy birds, and have many varied calls. Calls have been described as sounding like churr-churr-churr or thrraa-thrraa-thrraa with an alternating br-r-r-r-t sound. Males tend to call and drum more frequently than females, but both sexes call. The drum sounds like 6 taps.[10] Often, these woodpeckers "drum" to attract mates. They tap on hollow trees, and even on aluminum roofs, metal guttering and transformer boxes in urban environments, to communicate with potential partners. Babies have a high-pitched begging call of pree-pree-pree. They will continue to give a begging call whenever they see their parents for a while after fledging.
Peeking out of its nest
A female red-bellied woodpecker feeding her chick
Behavior and ecology
Red-bellied woodpecker feeding on the ground, Central Park, New York City

These birds mainly search out arthropods on tree trunks. They may also catch insects in flight.[citation needed] They are omnivores, eating insects, fruits, nuts and seeds. Their breeding habitat is usually deciduous forests. They nest in the decayed cavities of dead trees, old stumps, or in live trees that have softer wood such as elms, maples, or willows; both sexes assist in digging nesting cavities. Areas around nest sites are marked with drilling holes to warn others away.

Though the species is not globally threatened,[1] it depends on large trees for nesting. In areas that are extensively deforested, the birds will sometimes utilize gardens, but for the most part they simply will not be present in any numbers.[11]
Breeding

In early May, the red-bellied woodpeckers begin breeding activities by drumming patterns, such as slow taps followed by short rapid drumming.[12] The red-bellied woodpeckers use vocal signals to attract and communicate with potential mates.[13] A low "grr, grr" sound is observed in a pair of woodpeckers from the start of courtship until the end of the breeding season.[13] In an intraspecific conflict, red-bellied woodpeckers usually make a loud "chee-wuck, chee-wuck, chee-wuck" sound. As indicated by Kilham 1983, the red-bellied woodpecker drums with its bill during conflict situation and taps to maintain pair bonding. An example of a conflict event would be competing for the same mate. Nevertheless, red-bellied woodpeckers are known to be in monogamous relationships. They have been known to rapidly peck on aluminum gutters of houses to produce a loud noise in order to attract females.

Woodpeckers depend on dead and drying wood for nesting purposes. The male red-bellied woodpecker takes the initiative in locating a nest hole. He will then seek approval from his mate by mutual tapping.[13] The red-bellied woodpecker excavates holes in trees for nesting and roosting.[14] By excavating cavities, they play an important role in forest communities for other species as well.[15] For example, squirrels and bats use these cavities as shelter.[14] The female red-bellied woodpecker accepts the nesting site by completing the excavation and entering the nest hole.

Researchers have documented that red-bellied woodpeckers tend to nest in clear areas with only a few trees.[14] Studies have indicated that close canopy areas do not impact the bird's nesting behavior; however, further studies are needed and are in progress.[14] Red-bellied woodpeckers breed once per year and are territorial during the nesting season. A pair begins nesting in April or May holding a year-round territory and showing high site fidelity.[16]

Red-bellied woodpeckers depend on dead trees for nesting.[17] Recent studies have shown that these woodpeckers experienced low breeding due to cutting sites of dead trees; however, predators are still of main concern.[17][18] The juvenile red-bellied woodpecker is ready to fledge at 24 to 26 days of age. Natal dispersal has been observed in juvenile red-bellied woodpeckers.[16] The juvenile red-bellied woodpecker remains in its natal area for approximately 27 weeks after fledging.[16] In some cases, the woodpecker may return to its natal area for breeding, depending on predation levels and food resources.[16]
Food and feeding
Red-bellied woodpecker feeding on peanut halves from a bird feeder in Pennsylvania

As with all animals, foraging plays an important role in an animal's ability to survive and reproduce. The red-bellied woodpecker expresses foraging behavior by catching or storing food.[19] The woodpecker uses its bill as a chisel, drilling into bark or probing cracks on trunk of trees.[19] In this manner, it is able to pull out beetles and other insects from the tree with the help of its long tongue.[19] This behavior is also seen in storing food from other animals by hiding food behind bark or deep in cracks of a tree.[19] According to studies from Williams (1975),[20] Breitwisch (1977),[21] and Williams and Batzil (1979),[22] the red-bellied woodpecker spent 20% to 69% of its time foraging on dead or decaying trees.[23]: 351 In addition, Breitwisch (1977)[21] observed red-bellied woodpeckers primarily gleaning and probing to find food in South Florida pine habitat.[23]: 351 [24]: 5 The red-bellied woodpecker relies on snags or dying trees for foraging and nesting.[15] It is a major predator of the invasive emerald ash borer in the U.S. Midwest, removing up to 85 percent of borer larvae in a single infested ash tree.[25] The red-bellied woodpecker has also been observed, on occasion, foraging on the ground amongst groups of northern flicker woodpeckers.
Predation

Predators of adult red-bellied woodpeckers include birds of prey such as sharp-shinned hawks and Cooper's hawks, black rat snake, and house cats. Known predators of nestlings and eggs include red-headed woodpeckers, owls, pileated woodpeckers, eastern gray squirrels, fox squirrels, gray rat snakes, and black rat snakes. When approached by a predator, red-bellied woodpeckers either hide from it or harass it with alarm calls. They defend their nests and young aggressively, and may directly attack predators that come near the nest.
References

BirdLife International (2016). "Melanerpes carolinus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T22680856A92882598. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680856A92882598.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
Catesby, Mark (1729–1732). The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands. Vol. 1. London: W. Innys and R. Manby. p. 19, Plate 19.
Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae (Stockholm): Laurentii Salvii. p. 113.
Peters, James Lee, ed. (1948). Check-List of Birds of the World. Vol. 6. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 158.
Swainson, William John (1831). Richardson, John (ed.). Fauna boreali-americana, or, The zoology of the northern parts of British America : containing descriptions of the objects of natural history collected on the late northern land expeditions under command of Captain Sir John Franklin, R.N.: Part 2, The Birds. p. 316. The title page gives the date as 1831 but the volume was not actually published until the following year.
Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (2020). "Woodpeckers". IOC World Bird List Version 10.1. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
Kirschbaum, Karl; Eckhardt, Liesl (2001). Kirschbaum, Karl; Myers, Phil (eds.). "Melanerpes carolinus". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 23 March 2024 – via BioKIDS.
Sibley, David Allen (2017). The Sibley Field Guide to Birds of Eastern North America (Second ed.). Alfred A. Knopf. p. 229. ISBN 978-0-307-95791-7. LCCN 2015954431.
"Red-bellied Woodpecker Identification, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology". www.allaboutbirds.org. Retrieved 2020-09-26.
Oklahoma City Community College and Cornell online university
Henninger, W.F. (1906). "A preliminary list of the birds of Seneca County, Ohio" (PDF). Wilson Bulletin. 18 (2): 47–60.
Hamilton, N. Spring 2007. Red-Bellied Woodpecker. Loudoun Wildlife Conservancy People and Wildlife Living in Harmony 12: Issue 1
Wilkins, D. H.; Ritchison, G. (Autumn 1999). "Drumming and Tapping by Red-Bellied Woodpeckers: Description and Possible Causation" (PDF). J. Field Ornithol. 70 (4): 578–586. Retrieved 12 June 2013.
Adkins Giese, C. L.; Cuthbert, F. J. (2003). "Influence of surrounding vegetation on woodpecker nest tree selection in oak forests of the Upper Midwest, USA". Forest Ecology and Management. 179 (1–3): 523–534. Bibcode:2003ForEM.179..523A. doi:10.1016/s0378-1127(02)00529-7.
Leonard, Jr., David L.; Stout, I. Jack (2006). "Woodpecker use of forest wetlands in central peninsular Florida". Southeastern Naturalist. 4. 5 (4): 621–636. doi:10.1656/1528-7092(2006)5[621:wuofwi]2.0.co;2. S2CID 84675805.
Cox, A. S.; Kesler, D. C. (2012). "Prospecting behavior and the influence of forest cover on natal dispersal in a resident bird". Behavioral Ecology. 23 (5): 1068–1077. doi:10.1093/beheco/ars076.
Straus, M. A.; Bavrlic, K.; Nol, E.; Burke, D. M.; Elliott, K. A. (2011). "Reproductive success of cavity-nesting birds in partially harvested woodlots". Can. J. For. Res. 41 (5): 1004–1017. doi:10.1139/x11-012. Retrieved 12 June 2013.
Martin, T. E. 1995. Avian life history evolution in relation to nest sites, nest predation, and food. Ecological Monographs 65(1): 101–127
Kilham, L. (September 1963). "Food Storing of Red-Bellied Woodpeckers" (PDF). The Wilson Bulletin. 75 (3): 227–234. JSTOR 4159177. Retrieved 12 June 2013.
Williams, Joseph B. (1975). "Habitat Utilization by Four Species of Woodpecker in a Central Illinois Woodland". The American Midland Naturalist. 93 (2): 354–367. doi:10.2307/2424168. JSTOR 2424168. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
Breitwisch, R.J. (1977). The ecology and behavior of the Red-bellied Woodpecker, Centurus carolinus (Linnaeus) (Aves: Picidae), in south Florida (M.Sc. thesis). University of Miami.
Williams, Joseph B.; Batzli, George O. (1979). "Interference Competition and Niche Shifts in the Bark-Forging Guild in Central Illinois". The Wilson Bulletin. 91 (3): 400–411. JSTOR 4161241. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
Bowman, Reed; Leonard, Jr., David L.; Backus, Leslie K.; Mains, Allison R. (1999). "Interspecific interactions with foraging red-cockaded woodpeckers in south-central Florida" (PDF). The Wilson Bulletin. 111 (3): 346–355. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
Shackelford, Clifford E.; Brown, Raymond E.; Conner, Richard N. (2000). Poole, A.; Gill, F. (eds.). "Red-bellied Woodpecker (Melanerpes carolinus)". The Birds of North America. 500. Philadelphia: The Birds of North America, Inc.: 1–23. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.400.3068.

Graham, Rex (July 24, 2014). "Resilient Woodpeckers hard to knock – or stop, birdsnews.com". Archived from the original on April 4, 2016. Retrieved 2022-08-24.