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Black hole thermodynamics
In physics, black hole thermodynamics is the area of study that seeks to reconcile the laws of thermodynamics with the existence of black hole event horizons. Much as the study of the statistical mechanics of black body radiation led to the advent of the theory of quantum mechanics, the effort to understand the statistical mechanics of black holes has had a deep impact upon the understanding of quantum gravity, leading to the formulation of the holographic principle.[1]
An artist depiction of two black holes merging, a process in which the laws of thermodynamics are upheld.
Black hole entropy
The only way to satisfy the second law of thermodynamics is to admit that black holes have entropy. If black holes carried no entropy, it would be possible to violate the second law by throwing mass into the black hole. The increase of the entropy of the black hole more than compensates for the decrease of the entropy carried by the object that was swallowed.
Starting from theorems proved by Stephen Hawking, Jacob Bekenstein conjectured that the black hole entropy was proportional to the area of its event horizon divided by the Planck area. Bekenstein suggested (½ ln 2)/4π as the constant of proportionality, asserting that if the constant was not exactly this, it must be very close to it. The next year, Hawking showed that black holes emit thermal Hawking radiation[2][3] corresponding to a certain temperature (Hawking temperature).[4][5] Using the thermodynamic relationship between energy, temperature and entropy, Hawking was able to confirm Bekenstein's conjecture and fix the constant of proportionality at 1/4[6]:
\( S_{\text{BH}} = \frac{kA}{4\ell_{\mathrm{P}}^2} \)
where A is the area of the event horizon, calculated at 4πR2, k is Boltzmann's constant, and \( \ell_{\mathrm{P}}=\sqrt{G\hbar / c^3} \) is the Planck length. The subscript BH either stands for "black hole" or "Bekenstein-Hawking". The black hole entropy is proportional to the area of its event horizon A. The fact that the black hole entropy is also the maximal entropy that can be obtained by the Bekenstein bound (wherein the Bekenstein bound becomes an equality) was the main observation that led to the holographic principle.[1]
Although Hawking's calculations gave further thermodynamic evidence for black hole entropy, until 1995 no one was able to make a controlled calculation of black hole entropy based on statistical mechanics, which associates entropy with a large number of microstates. In fact, so called "no hair"[7] theorems appeared to suggest that black holes could have only a single microstate. The situation changed in 1995 when Andrew Strominger and Cumrun Vafa calculated the right Bekenstein-Hawking entropy of a supersymmetric black hole in string theory, using methods based on D-branes. Their calculation was followed by many similar computations of entropy of large classes of other extremal and near-extremal black holes, and the result always agreed with the Bekenstein-Hawking formula.
Loop quantum gravity (LQG),[8] viewed as the main competitor of string theory, also offered a calculation of the black hole entropy. This calculation confirms that the entropy is proportional to the surface area, with the proportionality constant dependent on the only free parameter in LQG, Immirzi parameter.[9]
The laws of black hole mechanics
The four laws of black hole mechanics are physical properties that black holes are believed to satisfy. The laws, analogous to the laws of thermodynamics, were discovered by Brandon Carter, Stephen Hawking and James Bardeen.
Statement of the laws
The laws of black hole mechanics are expressed in geometrized units.
The Zeroth Law
The horizon has constant surface gravity for a stationary black hole.
The First Law
Change of mass is related to change of area, angular momentum, and electric charge by:
\( dM = \frac{\kappa}{8\pi}\,dA+\Omega\, dJ+\Phi\, dQ, \)
where M is the mass, \displaystyle \kappa is the surface gravity, A is the horizon area, \Omega is the angular velocity, J is the angular momentum, \( \Phi \) is the electrostatic potential and Q is the electric charge.
The Second Law
The horizon area is, assuming the weak energy condition, a non-decreasing function of time,
\( \frac{dA}{dt} \geq 0 \)
This "law" was superseded by Hawking's discovery that black holes radiate, which causes both the black hole's mass and the area of its horizon to decrease over time.
The Third Law
It is not possible to form a black hole with vanishing surface gravity. \displaystyle \kappa = 0 is not possible to achieve.
Discussion of the laws
The Zeroth Law
The zeroth law is analogous to the zeroth law of thermodynamics which states that the temperature is constant throughout a body in thermal equilibrium. It suggests that the surface gravity is analogous to temperature. T constant for thermal equilibrium for a normal system is analogous to \displaystyle \kappa constant over the horizon of a stationary black hole.
The First Law
The left hand side, dM, is the change in mass/energy. Although the first term does not have an immediately obvious physical interpretation, the second and third terms on the right hand side represent changes in energy due to rotation and electromagnetism. Analogously, the first law of thermodynamics is a statement of energy conservation, which contains on its right hand side the term T dS.
The Second Law
The second law is the statement of Hawking's area theorem. Analogously, the second law of thermodynamics states that the change in entropy an isolated system will be greater than or equal to 0 for a spontaneous process, suggesting a link between entropy and the area of a black hole horizon. However, this version violates the second law of thermodynamics by matter losing (its) entropy as it falls in, giving a decrease in entropy. Generalized second law introduced as total entropy = black hole entropy + outside entropy.
The Third Law
Extremal black holes[10] have vanishing surface gravity. Stating that \displaystyle \kappa cannot go to zero is analogous to the third law of thermodynamics which states, the entropy of a system at absolute zero is a well-defined constant. This is because a system at zero temperature exists in its ground state. Furthermore, ΔS will reach zero at 0 kelvins, but S itself will also reach zero, at least for perfect crystalline substances. No experimentally verified violations of the laws of thermodynamics are known.
Interpretation of the laws
The four laws of black hole mechanics suggest that one should identify the surface gravity of a black hole with temperature and the area of the event horizon with entropy, at least up to some multiplicative constants. If one only considers black holes classically, then they have zero temperature and, by the no hair theorem,[7] zero entropy, and the laws of black hole mechanics remain an analogy. However, when quantum mechanical effects are taken into account, one finds that black holes emit thermal radiation (Hawking radiation) at temperature
\( T_{\text{H}} = \frac{\kappa}{2\pi}. \)
From the first law of black hole mechanics, this determines the multiplicative constant of the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy which is
\( S_{\text{BH}} = \frac{A}{4}. \)
Beyond black holes
Hawking and Page showed that black hole thermodynamics is more general than black holes, that cosmological event horizons also have an entropy and temperature.
More fundamentally, 't Hooft and Susskind used the laws of black hole thermodynamics to argue for a general Holographic Principle of nature, which asserts that consistent theories of gravity and quantum mechanics must be lower dimensional. Though not yet fully understood in general, the holographic principle is central to theories like the AdS/CFT correspondence[11].
See also
Stephen Hawking
Jacob Bekenstein
Hawking radiation
Notes
^ a b Bousso, Raphael (2002). "The Holographic Principle". Reviews of Modern Physics 74 (3): 825–874. arXiv:hep-th/0203101. Bibcode 2002RvMP...74..825B. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.74.825.
^ "First Observation of Hawking Radiation" from the Technology Review
^ Matson, John (Oct. 1 2010). "Artificial event horizon emits laboratory analogue to theoretical black hole radiation". Sci. Am.
^ Charlie Rose: A conversation with Dr. Stephen Hawking & Lucy Hawking
^ A Brief History of Time, Stephen Hawking, Bantam Books, 1988.
^ Majumdar, Parthasarathi (1998). "Black Hole Entropy and Quantum Gravity". ArXiv: General Relativity and Quantum Cosmology. arXiv:gr-qc/9807045. Bibcode 1999InJPB..73..147M.
^ a b http://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0702006 No hair theorems for positive Lambda
^ See List of loop quantum gravity researchers
^ Ashtekar, Abhay; Baez, John; Corichi, Alejandro; Krasnov, Kirill (1998). "Quantum Geometry and Black Hole Entropy". Physical Review Letters 80 (5): 904–907. arXiv:gr-qc/9710007. Bibcode 1998PhRvL..80..904A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.80.904.
^ Supersymmetry as a Cosmic Censor Authors: Renata Kallosh, Andrei Linde, Tomás Ortín, Amanda Peet, Antoine Van Proeyen http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/9205027
^ For an authoritative review, see Ofer Aharony, Steven S. Gubser, Juan Maldacena, Hirosi Ooguri and Yaron Oz (2000). "Large N field theories, string theory and gravity". Physics Reports 323: 183–386. arXiv:hep-th/9905111. doi:10.1016/S0370-1573(99)00083-6. (Shorter lectures by Maldacena, based on that review.
References
Bardeen, J. M.; Carter, B.; Hawking, S. W. (1973). "The four laws of black hole mechanics". Communications in Mathematical Physics 31 (2): 161–170. Bibcode 1973CMaPh..31..161B. doi:10.1007/BF01645742.
Bekenstein, Jacob D. (April 1973). "Black holes and entropy". Physical Review D 7 (8): 2333–2346. Bibcode 1973PhRvD...7.2333B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.7.2333.
Hawking, Stephen W. (1974). "Black hole explosions?". Nature 248 (5443): 30–31. Bibcode 1974Natur.248...30H. doi:10.1038/248030a0.
Hawking, Stephen W. (1975). "Particle creation by black holes". Communications in Mathematical Physics 43 (3): 199–220. Bibcode 1975CMaPh..43..199H. doi:10.1007/BF02345020.
Hawking, S. W.; Ellis, G. F. R. (1973). The Large Scale Structure of Space–Time. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521099064.
Hawking, Stephen W. (1994). "The Nature of Space and Time". ArΧiv e-print. arXiv:hep-th/9409195v1. Bibcode 1994hep.th....9195H.
't Hooft, Gerardus (1985). "On the quantum structure of a black hole". Nuclear Phys. B 256: 727–745. Bibcode 1985NuPhB.256..727T. doi:10.1016/0550-3213(85)90418-3.
External links
Bekenstein-Hawking entropy on Scholarpedia
Black Hole Thermodynamics
Black hole entropy on arxiv.org
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