Superregnum: Eukaryota
Cladus: Unikonta
Cladus: Opisthokonta
Cladus: Holozoa
Regnum: Animalia
Subregnum: Eumetazoa
Cladus: Bilateria
Cladus: Nephrozoa
Superphylum: Deuterostomia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Infraphylum: Gnathostomata
Megaclassis: Osteichthyes
Superclassis/Classis: Actinopterygii
Classis/Subclassis: Actinopteri
Subclassis/Infraclassis: Neopterygii
Infraclassis: Teleostei
Megacohors: Osteoglossocephalai
Supercohors: Clupeocephala
Cohors: Euteleosteomorpha
Subcohors: Neoteleostei
Infracohors: Eurypterygia
Sectio: Ctenosquamata
Subsectio: Acanthomorphata
Divisio/Superordo: Acanthopterygii
Ordo: Pleuronectiformes
Subordo: Soleoidei
Familia: Soleidae
Genus: Pardachirus
Species: Pardachirus marmoratus
Pardachirus marmoratus, the finless sole, speckled sole or Red Sea Moses sole,[1] is a species of flatfish native to the western Indian Ocean.
Description
The adult finless sole is bilaterally symmetrical and as they mature their left eye migrates on to the right side of the head. The highly compressed body is convex on the eyed side and flat on the blind side. The rounded caudal fin is not attached to either the dorsal or cloacal fin. It is variable in colour frequently whitish, pale brown to pale grey with a scattering of irregular dark brown ring shape markings and many dark brown spots on the head, body, and fins. Along the lateral line, there are normally two brown dots containing yellow flecks.[2]
Distribution and habitat
This species occurs in the western Indian Ocean from the Red Sea to Sri Lanka and along the east coast of Africa to Durban.[1] It is found in shallow, coastal waters where the seabed consists of sand or mud,[1] often near coral reefs,[2] and they feed mainly on benthic invertebrates. It is caught for consumption, despite the poison it exudes and is marketed fresh.[1] They often spend the day buried in the sand with only its eyes and nostrils visible.[2]
Toxicity
The finless sole secretes a milky ichthyotoxin[3] from the base of its dorsal and cloacal fins. This secretion contains pardaxin, a lipophillic peptide that causes severe plasma membrane disruption resulting in cell leakage. The pardaxin containing secretion is used as a defensive mechanism against predators including sharks. Pardaxin is irritating to predator fish, particularly affecting the sensitive gills. Eugenie Clark conducted much of the early work on the species.[4]
There is much biotechnological interest in pardaxin, early interest focused on potential shark repellent applications while newer research focuses on antimicrobial and neurotoxic potential of pardaxin and its analogues.[4] One toxin produced, pardaxin-1, does have unusual shark repellent and surfactant properties. It created voltage-dependent, ion-permeable channels in membranes and at high concentration it causes lysis in cell membranes. This toxin has been demonstrated to be 5-10 times more toxic, cytolytic and active in the formation of pores in cell membranes than the other toxin exuded, pardaxin-2.[5]
Mimic Octopuses have been known to mimic them.[6]
References
Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Pardachirus marmoratus". FishBase. February 2018 version.
"Finless Sole". Qatar-e-Nature. Retrieved 29 March 2018.
Tachibana, K.; Gruber, S. H. (1988). "Shark repellent lipophilic constituents in the defense secretion of the Moses sole (Pardachirus marmoratus)". Toxicon. 26 (9): 839–853. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(88)90325-x. ISSN 0041-0101. PMID 3201487.
Clark, Eugenie; Gorge, Anita (June 1979). "Toxic soles, Pardachirus marmoratus from the Red Sea and P. pavoninus from Japan, with notes on other species". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 4 (2): 103–123. doi:10.1007/bf00005447. S2CID 11156811.
"UniProtKB - P81863 (PAP1_PARMA)". Uniprot. Retrieved 29 March 2018.
"Unusual Adaptations: Evolution of the Mimic Octopus". academic.oup.com. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
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