Acanthagenys

Divisio: Archosauria
Cladus: Avemetatarsalia
Cladus: Ornithodira
Subtaxon: Dinosauromorpha
Cladus: Dinosauriformes
Cladus: Dracohors
Cladus: Dinosauria
Ordo: Saurischia
Cladus: Eusaurischia
Subordo: Theropoda
Cladus: Neotheropoda
Cladus: Averostra
Cladus: Tetanurae
Cladus: Avetheropoda
Cladus: Coelurosauria
Cladus: Tyrannoraptora
Cladus: Maniraptoromorpha
Cladus: Maniraptoriformes
Cladus: Maniraptora
Cladus: Pennaraptora
Cladus: Paraves
Cladus: Eumaniraptora
Cladus: Avialae
Infraclassis: Aves
Cladus: Euavialae
Cladus: Avebrevicauda
Cladus: Pygostylia
Cladus: Ornithothoraces
Cladus: Ornithuromorpha
Cladus: Carinatae
Parvclassis: Neornithes
Cohors: Neognathae
Cladus: Neoaves
Cladus: Columbimorphae
Ordo: Columbiformes

Familia: Columbidae
Subfamilia: Columbinae
Genus: Columba
Species: C. livia
Subspecies: C. l. dakhlae – C. l. gaddi – C. l. gymnocycla – C. l. intermedia – C. l. livia – C. l. neglecta – C. l. palaestinae – C. l. schimperi – C. l. targia
Name

Columba livia Gmelin, 1789

Type locality: Fair Isle, Shetland, Scotland (neotype, selected by Donegan, 2016)

Synonyms

Columba domestica livia (protonym)
Columba domestica saxatilis Gmelin, 1789
Columba domestica norwegica Gmelin, 1789
Columba domestica barbarica Gmelin, 1789
Columba domestica eques Gmelin, 1789
Columba domestica jubata Gmelin, 1789
Columba domestica Linnaeus, 1758 (nom. inval., name based on domesticated animal)

References
Primary references

Gmelin, J.F. 1789. Caroli a Linné systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I, Pars II. Editio decima tertia, aucta, reformata. - pp. 501–1032. Lipsiae. (Beer). DOI: 10.5962/bhl.title.545 Original description p. 769 BHL Reference page. 

Additional references

Donegan, T.M. 2016. The pigeon names Columba livia, C. domestica and C. oenas and their type specimens. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club 136 (1): 14–27.
Smith, W. J., et al. 2022. Limited domestic introgression in a final refuge of the wild pigeon. iScience 104620.

Links

IUCN: Columba livia (Least Concern)

Vernacular names
Afrikaans: Wildeposduif
Ænglisc: Wildu culfre
aragonés: Palomo roquero
العربية: حمام جبلي
asturianu: Palomba
azərbaycanca: Çöl göyərçini
žemaitėška: Balondis
башҡортса: Күк күгәрсен
беларуская (тарашкевіца): Шызы голуб
беларуская: Шызы голуб
български: Скален гълъб
বাংলা: জালালি কবুতর, পায়রা
brezhoneg: Dube
bosanski: Golub pećinar
буряад: Гулабхаа
català: Colom roquer
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄: Băh-gák
нохчийн: Кхокха
corsu: Pitricaghjolu
čeština: Holub skalní
чӑвашла: Ахаль кăвакарчăн
Cymraeg: Colomen y Graig
dansk: Klippedue
Deutsch: Felsentaube
dolnoserbski: Źiwy gołub
Ελληνικά: Περιστέρι
emiliàn e rumagnòl: Pizån
English: Rock Dove
Esperanto: Rokkolombo
español: Paloma bravía
eesti: Kaljutuvi
euskara: Haitz-uso
فارسی: کبوتر چاهی
suomi: Kalliokyyhky
føroyskt: Bládúgva
français: Pigeon biset
furlan: Colomp salvadi
Frysk: Stedsdo
Gaeilge: Colm aille
Gàidhlig: Calman Creige
galego: Pomba das rochas
Avañe'ẽ: Pykasu óga
Gaelg: Calmane creggey
עברית: יונת סלע
हिन्दी: Mada pura
hrvatski: Golub pećinar
hornjoserbsce: Dźiwi hołb
Kreyòl ayisyen: Pijon
magyar: Szirti galamb
հայերեն: Թխակապույտ Աղավնի
Bahasa Indonesia: Merpati Karang
íslenska: Bjargdúfa
italiano: Piccione selvatico
日本語: カワラバト
Jawa: Mégan
Qaraqalpaqsha: Ko'k kepter
ქართული: გარეული მტრედი
қазақша: Кєк кептер
перем коми: Дуді
한국어: 바위비둘기
kurdî: Kewê hêşin
kernowek: Colom carrek
кыргызча: Көк көгүчкөн
Latina: Columba
Lëtzebuergesch: Felddauf
Limburgs: Wèl douf
lombard: Piviun
lietuvių: Uolinis karvelis
latviešu: Klinšu balodis
Malagasy: Voromailala
македонски: Див гулаб
മലയാളം: മാടപ്രാവ്
монгол: Хөхвөр тагтаа
кырык мары: Кӓдӹ
मराठी: कबुतर
Bahasa Melayu: Burung Pergam Batu
Malti: Tudun tal-ġebel
Nedersaksies: Stadsduve
नेपाली: मलेवा
Nederlands: Rotsduif
norsk nynorsk: Klippedue
norsk: Klippedue
Nouormand: Pigeon d'falaise
occitan: Colomb
ирон: Бæлон
polski: Gołąb skalny
Piemontèis: Colomb sarva
پنجابی: جنگلی کبوتر
português: Pombo-das-rochas
Runa Simi: Qaqa paluma
romani čhib: Baresko-golumbo
rumantsch: Columba selvadia
română: Porumbel de stâncă
русский: Сизый голубь
sicilianu: Palumma
Scots: Doo
sardu: Columbu agreste
davvisámegiella: Bákteduvvá
srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски: Golub pećinar
slovenčina: Holub skalný
slovenščina: Skalni golob
shqip: Pëllumbi i egër i shkëmbit
српски / srpski: Golub pecinar - Голуб пећинар
Sesotho: Leeba-la-sekhooa
Sunda: Japati
svenska: Klippduva
Kiswahili: Njiwa-mjini
தமிழ்: மாடப்புறா
ไทย: นกพิราบ
Türkmençe: Gök kepderi
lea faka-Tonga: Lupe pālangi
Türkçe: Kaya güvercini
татарча/tatarça: Күгәрчен
українська: Сизий голуб
oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча: Koʻk kaptar
vèneto: Colonp
Tiếng Việt: Gầm ghì đá
Zeêuws: Stadsduuve
粵語: 白鴿
中文: 原鸽

The rock dove, rock pigeon, or common pigeon (/ˈpɪdʒ.ən/ also /ˈpɪdʒ.ɪn/; Columba livia) is a member of the bird family Columbidae (doves and pigeons).[3]: 624  In common usage, it is often simply referred to as the "pigeon".

The domestic pigeon (Columba livia domestica, which includes about 1,000 different breeds) descended from this species. Escaped domestic pigeons have increased the populations of feral pigeons around the world.[4]

Wild rock doves are pale grey with two black bars on each wing, whereas domestic and feral pigeons vary in colour and pattern. Few differences are seen between males and females.[5] The species is generally monogamous, with two squabs (young) per brood. Both parents care for the young for a time.[6]

Habitats include various open and semi-open environments. Cliffs and rock ledges are used for roosting and breeding in the wild. Originally found wild in Europe, North Africa, and western Asia, pigeons have become established in cities around the world. The species is abundant, with an estimated population of 17 to 28 million feral and wild birds in Europe alone and up to 120 million worldwide.[1][7]

Taxonomy and systematics

The official common name is rock dove, as given by the International Ornithological Congress.[8] The rock dove was formally described in 1789 by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his revised and expanded edition of Carl Linnaeus's Systema Naturae. He placed it with all the other doves and pigeons in the genus Columba and coined the binomial name Columba livia.[9] The genus name Columba is the Latin word meaning "pigeon, dove",[10] whose older etymology comes from the Ancient Greek κόλυμβος (kolumbos), "a diver", from κολυμβάω (kolumbao), "dive, plunge headlong, swim".[11] Aristophanes (Birds, 304) and others use the word κολυμβίς (kolumbis), "diver", for the name of the bird, because of its swimming motion in the air.[12] The specific epithet livia is a medieval Latin variant of livida, "livid, bluish-gray"; this was Theodorus Gaza's translation of Greek peleia, "dove", itself thought to be derived from pellos, "dark-colored".[13]: 228  Its closest relative in the genus Columba is the hill pigeon, followed by the other rock pigeons: the snow, speckled, and white-collared pigeons.[3] Pigeon chicks are called "squabs".[6] Note that members of the lesser known pigeon genus Petrophassa and the speckled pigeon (Columba guinea), also have the common name “rock pigeon”. The rock dove was first described by German naturalist Johann Gmelin in 1789.[14] The rock dove was central to Charles Darwin's discovery of evolution, and featured in four of his works from 1859 to 1872. Darwin posited that, despite wide-ranging morphological differences, the many hundreds of breeds of domestic pigeon could all be traced back to the wild rock dove; in essence human selection of pigeon breeds was analogous to natural selection.[15]
Subspecies

Twelve subspecies are recognised by Gibbs (2000); some of these may be derived from feral stock.[3]: 176–179 

The European rock dove (C. l. livia) – The nominate subspecies; Found in western and southern Europe, northern Africa, and Asia to western Kazakhstan, the northern Caucasus, Georgia, Cyprus, Turkey, Iran and Iraq.
The Indian rock dove (C. l. intermedia) (Strickland, 1844) – Found in Sri Lanka and in India south of the Himalayan range of C. l. neglecta. It is similar to that subspecies but darker, with a less contrasting back.
The Egyptian rock dove (C. l. schimperi) (Bonaparte, 1854) – Found in the Nile Delta south to northern Sudan, it closely resembles C. l. targia, but has a distinctly paler mantle.
The Senegal rock dove (C. l. gymnocyclus) (Gray, 1856) – Found from Senegal and Guinea to Ghana, Benin and Nigeria, it is smaller and very much darker than the nominate subspecies. It is almost blackish on the head, rump and underparts with a white back and the iridescence of the nape extending onto the head.
Hume's rock dove (C. l. neglecta) (Hume, 1873) – Found in the mountains of eastern Central Asia, it is similar to the nominate subspecies in size but darker, with a stronger and more extensive iridescent sheen on the neck. It intergrades with the next subspecies in the south.
The Iranian rock dove (C. l. gaddi) (Zarodney & Looudoni, 1906) – It breeds from Azerbaijan and Iran east to Uzbekistan. It is larger and paler than C. l. palaestinae, with which it intergrades in the west. It also intergrades with the next subspecies in the east.
The Mongolian rock dove (C. l. nigricans) (Buturlin, 1908) – Found in Mongolia and northern China, it is a variable subspecies and is probably derived from feral pigeons.
The Arabian rock dove (C. l. palaestinae) (Zedlitz, 1912) – Ranging from Syria to Sinai and Arabia, it is slightly larger than C. l. schimperi and has darker plumage.
The Canary Islands rock dove (C. l. canariensis) (Bannerman, 1914) – Found in the Canary Islands, it is smaller and usually darker than the nominate subspecies.
The Saharan rock dove (C. l. targia) (Geyr von Schweppenburg, 1916) – It breeds in the mountains of the Sahara east to Sudan. It is slightly smaller than the nominate subspecies, with similar plumage, but the back is concolorous with the mantle instead of white.
The oasis rock dove (C. l. dakhlae) (Richard Meinertzhagen, 1928) – Found only in two oases in central Egypt, it is smaller and much paler than the nominate subspecies.
The Cape Verde rock dove (C. l. atlantis) (Bannerman, 1931) – Found in Madeira, the Azores and Cape Verde, it is a very variable subspecies with chequered upperparts obscuring the black wingbars and is almost certainly derived from feral pigeons.

Description
A distinctive operculum is located on top of the beak.

Centuries of domestication have greatly altered the rock dove. Feral pigeons, which have escaped domestication throughout history, have significant variations in plumage.[16] When not specified, descriptions are for assumed wild type, though the wild type may be on the verge of extinction or already extinct.[17]

The adult of the nominate subspecies of the rock dove is 29 to 37 cm (11 to 15 in) long with a 62 to 72 cm (24 to 28 in) wingspan.[18] Weight for wild or feral rock doves ranges from 238–380 g (8.4–13.4 oz), though overfed domestic and semidomestic individuals can exceed normal weights.[3][5] It has a dark bluish-grey head, neck, and chest with glossy yellowish, greenish, and reddish-purple iridescence along its neck and wing feathers. The iris is orange, red, or golden with a paler inner ring, and the bare skin round the eye is bluish-grey. The bill is grey-black with a conspicuous off-white cere, and the feet are purplish-red. Among standard measurements, the wing chord is typically around 22.3 cm (8.8 in), the tail is 9.5 to 11 cm (3.7 to 4.3 in), the bill is around 1.8 cm (0.71 in), and the tarsus is 2.6 to 3.5 cm (1.0 to 1.4 in).[3]
Group of doves
A medium sized flock forages

The adult female is almost identical in outward appearance to the male, but the iridescence on her neck is less intense and more restricted to the rear and sides, whereas that on the breast is often very obscure.[3]

The white lower back of the pure rock dove is its best identification characteristic; the two black bars on its pale grey wings are also distinctive. The tail has a black band on the end, and the outer web of the tail feathers are margined with white. It is strong and quick on the wing, dashing out from sea caves, flying low over the water, its lighter grey rump showing well from above.[19][self-published source?]

Young birds show little lustre and are duller. Eye colour of the pigeon is generally orange, but a few pigeons may have white-grey eyes. The eyelids are orange and encapsulated in a grey-white eye ring. The feet are red to pink.[6]
In flight
In flight, British Columbia, Canada

When circling overhead, the white underwing of the bird becomes conspicuous. In its flight, behaviour, and voice, which is more of a dovecot coo than the phrase of the wood pigeon, it is a typical pigeon. Although it is a relatively strong flier, it also glides frequently, holding its wings in a very pronounced V shape as it does.[20] As prey birds, they must keep their vigilance, and when disturbed a pigeon within a flock will take off with a noisy clapping sound that cues for other pigeons to take to flight. The noise of the take-off increases the faster a pigeon beats its wings, thus advertising the magnitude of a perceived threat to its flockmates.[21]

Feral pigeons are essentially the same size and shape as the original wild rock dove, but often display far greater variation in colour and pattern compared to their wild ancestors. The blue-barred pattern which the original wild rock dove displays is generally less common in more urban areas. Urban pigeons tend to have darker plumage than those in more rural areas.[22]
Slow motion, demonstrating the wing movements

Pigeons feathers have two types of melanin (pigment) – eumelanin and pheomelanin. A study of melanin in the feathers of both wild rock and domestic pigeons, of different coloration types and known genetic background, measured the concentration, distribution and proportions of eumelanin and pheomelanin and found that gene mutations affecting the distribution, amounts and proportions of pigments accounted for the greater variation of coloration in domesticated birds than in their wild relations. Eumelanin generally causes grey or black colouration, while pheomelanin results in a reddish-brown colour. Other shades of brown may be produced through different combinations and concentrations of the two colours.[23] As in other animals, white pigeons have little to no pigment.[citation needed] Darker birds may be better able to store trace metals in their feathers due to their higher concentrations of melanin, which may help mitigate the negative effects of the metals, the concentrations of which are typically higher in urban areas.[24] Pigeons, especially homing or carrier breeds, are well known for their ability to find their way home from long distances. Despite these demonstrated abilities, wild rock doves are sedentary and rarely leave their local areas. It is hypothesized that in their natural, arid habitat, they rely on this sense to navigate back home after foraging as deserts rarely possess navigational landmarks that may be used.[5]

A rock pigeon's lifespan ranges from 3–5 years in the wild to 15 years in captivity, though longer-lived specimens have been reported.[25] The main causes of mortality in the wild are predators and persecution by humans.[citation needed] Some sources state the species was first introduced to North America in 1606 at Port Royal, Nova Scotia.[19] Although other sources cite Plymouth and Jamestown settlements in the early 17th century as the first place for species introduction in North America.[26]
In Chandigarh, India, showing that the iridescence wraps around the whole neck
Vocalizations

The call is a soft, slightly wavering, coo. Ornithologist David Sibley describes the display call as a whoo, hoo-witoo-hoo,[16] whereas the Cornell Lab of Ornithology describes it as a Coo, roo-c'too-coo. Variations include an alarm call, a nest call, and noises made by juveniles.[27] Sibley describes the nest call as a repeated hu-hu-hurrr.[16] When displaying, songs are partly sexual, partly threatening. They are accompanied by an inflated throat, tail fanning, strutting, and bowing. The alarm call, given at sight of predators, is a grunt-like oorhh.[27]

Non-vocal sounds include a loud flapping noise at take-off, feet stomping, hisses, and beak snapping. Wings may also be clapped during flights, usually during display fights or after copulation. Juveniles particularly snap their bills, usually to respond to nest invasion. The foot stomping appears deliberate, though for what purpose is unclear. Foot stomping is done with a certain foot first, showing that rock doves have "footedness", similar to human handedness.[27]
Osmoregulation
Main article: Osmoregulation in rock doves
Distribution and habitat
Perched on sea cliffs in Norfolk, England

Before the Columbian Exchange, rock doves were restricted to a natural resident range in western and southern Europe, North Africa, and extending into South Asia. They were carried into the New World aboard European ships between 1603 and 1607.[27][28] The species (including ferals) has a large range, with an estimated global extent of occurrence of 10,000,000 km2 (3,900,000 sq mi). It has a large global population, including an estimated 17 to 28 million individuals in Europe.[1] Fossil evidence suggests the rock dove originated in southern Asia, and skeletal remains, unearthed in Israel, confirm its existence there for at least 300,000 years.[4] However, this species has such a long history with humans that it is impossible to identify its original range exactly.[5]

Wild pigeons reside in rock formations and cliff faces, settling in crevices to nest. They nest communally, often forming large colonies of many hundreds of individuals.[29] Wild nesting sites include caves, canyons, and sea cliffs. They will even live in the Sahara so long as an area has rocks, water, and some plant matter. They prefer to avoid dense vegetation.[27]

Rock doves have a commensal relationship with humans, gaining both ample access to food and nesting spots in civilized areas. Human structures provide an excellent imitation of cliff structures, making rock doves very common around human habitation. Skyscrapers, highway overpasses, farm buildings, abandoned buildings, and other human structures with ample crevices are conducive to rock dove nesting. Thus the modern range of the rock dove is due in large part to humans.[27] Agricultural settlements are favored over forested ones.[30] Ideal human nesting attributes combine areas with tall buildings, green spaces, ample access to human food, and schools. Conversely, suburban areas which are far from city centers and have high street density are the least conducive to pigeons.[31] Their versatility among human structures is evidenced by a population living inside a deep well in Tunisia.[27]

Feral pigeons are usually unable to find these accommodations, so they must nest on building ledges, walls or statues. They may damage these structures via their feces; starving birds can only excrete urates, which over time corrodes masonry and metal. In contrast, a well-fed bird passes mostly solid feces, containing only small amounts of uric acid.[citation needed]
Behavior and ecology

Pigeons are often found in pairs in the breeding season, but are usually gregarious.[3]
Breeding
Two squabs, a few days old
A pigeon incubating its eggs
Incubating an egg, showing their relatively flimsy nests
0:15
Courtship display

The rock dove breeds at any time of the year, but peak times are spring and summer. Nesting sites are along coastal cliff faces, as well as the artificial cliff faces created by apartment buildings with accessible ledges or roof spaces.[32] Pigeons can compete with native birds for nest sites.[33] For some avian species, such as seabirds, it could be a conservation issue.[34] Current evidence suggests that wild, domestic and feral pigeons mate for life, although their long-term bonds are not unbreakable.[35] They are socially monogamous, but extra-pair matings do occur, often initiated by males.[36] Due to their ability to produce crop milk, pigeons can breed at any time of year. Pigeons breed when the food supply is abundant enough to support embryonic egg development, which in cities, can be any time of the year. Laying of eggs can take place up to six times per year.[citation needed]

Pigeons are often found in pairs during the breeding season, but usually the pigeons are gregarious, living in flocks of 50 to 500 birds (dependent on the food supply).[37]

Courtship rituals can be observed in urban parks at any time of the year. The male on the ground or rooftops puffs up the feathers on his neck to appear larger and thereby impress or attract attention. He approaches the female at a rapid walking pace while emitting repetitive quiet notes, often bowing and turning as he comes closer.[38] At first, the female invariably walks or flies a short distance away and the male follows her until she stops. At this point, he continues the bowing motion and very often makes full- or half-pirouettes in front of the female.[39] The male then proceeds to feed the female by regurgitating food, as they do when feeding the young.[citation needed] The male then mounts the female, rearing backwards to be able to join their cloacae. The mating is very brief, with the male flapping his wings to maintain balance on top of the female.[38]

The nest is a flimsy platform of straw and sticks, laid on a ledge, under cover, often on the window ledges of buildings.[5] Two white eggs are laid; incubation, shared by both parents, lasts 17 to 19 days.[6] The newly hatched squab (nestling) has pale yellow down and a flesh-coloured bill with a dark band. For the first few days, the baby squabs are tended and fed (through regurgitation) exclusively on "crop milk" (also called "pigeon milk" or "pigeon's milk"). The pigeon milk is produced in the crops of both parents in all species of pigeon and dove. The fledging period is about 30 days.[18]
Feeding
A rock dove eating grains

Rock doves are omnivorous, but prefer plant matter: chiefly fruits and grains.[40]

Studies of pigeons in a semi-rural part of Kansas found that their diet includes the following: 92% maize, 3.2% oats, 3.7% cherry, along with small amounts of knotweed, elm, poison ivy and barley.[41] Feral pigeons can be seen eating grass seeds and berries in parks and gardens in the spring, but plentiful sources exist throughout the year from scavenging (e.g., food remnants left inside of dropped fast food cartons, in the form of popcorn, cake, peanuts, bread and currants)[41] and they also eat insects and spiders. Additional food is also usually available from waste bins, tourists or residents who feed bird seed to pigeons for reasons such as empathy, fun, tradition and as a means for social interaction.[42][43] Pigeons tend to congregate in large, often thick flocks when feeding on discarded food, and may be observed flying skillfully around trees, buildings, telephone poles and cables and even through moving traffic just to reach a food source.[citation needed]

Pigeons feed on the ground in flocks or individually. Pigeons are naturally granivorous, eating seeds that fit down their gullet. They may sometimes consume small invertebrates such as worms or insect larvae as a protein supplement. As they do not possess an enlarged cecum as in European wood pigeons, they cannot digest adult plant tissue; the various seeds they eat containing the appropriate nutrients they require.[44][45][46] While most birds take small sips and tilt their heads backwards when drinking, pigeons are able to dip their bills into the water and drink continuously, without having to tilt their heads back. In cities they typically resort to scavenging human garbage, as unprocessed grain may be impossible to find. Pigeon groups typically consist of producers, which locate and obtain food, and scroungers, which feed on food obtained by the producers. Generally, groups of pigeons contain a greater proportion of scroungers than producers.[47]
Preening

Pigeons primarily use powder down feathers for preening, which gives a soft and silky feel to their plumage. They have no preen gland or at times have very rudimentary preen glands, so oil is not used for preening. Rather, powder down feathers are spread across the body. These have a tendency to disintegrate, and the powder, akin to talcum powder, helps maintain the plumage.[48] Some varieties of domestic pigeon have modified feathers called "fat quills". These feathers contain yellow, oil-like fat that derives from the same cells as powder down. This is used while preening and helps reduce bacterial degradation of feathers by feather bacilli.[49]
Survival
Predators

With only their flying abilities protecting them from predation, rock pigeons are a favourite almost around the world for a wide range of raptors. In fact, with feral pigeons existing in almost every city in the world, they may form the majority of prey for several raptor species that live in urban areas. Peregrine falcons and Eurasian sparrowhawks are natural predators of pigeons and quite adept at catching and feeding upon this species. Up to 80% of the diet of peregrine falcons in several cities that have breeding falcons is composed of feral pigeons.[50] Some common predators of feral pigeons in North America are opossums, raccoons, red-tailed hawks, great horned owls, eastern screech owls, and accipiters. The birds that prey on pigeons in North America can range in size from American kestrels to golden eagles[51] and may even include gulls, crows and ravens.[citation needed] On the ground the adults, their young and their eggs are at risk from feral and domestic cats.[6] Doves and pigeons are considered to be game birds, since many species are hunted and used for food in many of the countries in which they are native.[52]

The body feathers have dense, fluffy bases and are loosely attached to the skin, hence they drop out easily. When a predator catches a pigeon large numbers of feathers come out in the attacker's mouth and the pigeon may use this temporary distraction to make an escape.[48] It also tends to drop the tail feathers when preyed upon or under traumatic conditions, probably as a distraction mechanism.[53]
Parasites
Tinaminyssus melloi female.jpg Fly June 2008-2.jpg
Tinaminyssus melloi, a nasal mite. Pigeon louse fly (Pseudolynchia canariensis), a blood-sucking ectoparasite.

Pigeons may harbour a diverse parasite fauna.[54] They often host the intestinal helminths Capillaria columbae and Ascaridia columbae. Their ectoparasites include the ischnoceran lice Columbicola columbae, Campanulotes bidentatus compar, the amblyceran lice Bonomiella columbae, Hohorstiella lata, Colpocephalum turbinatum, the mites Tinaminyssus melloi, Dermanyssus gallinae, Dermoglyphus columbae, Falculifer rostratus and Diplaegidia columbae. The hippoboscid fly Pseudolynchia canariensis is a typical blood-sucking ectoparasite of pigeons in tropical and subtropical regions.
Relationship to humans
Domestication
Domestic pigeons
Main article: Domestic pigeon

Rock doves have been domesticated for several thousand years, giving rise to the domestic pigeon (Columba livia domestica).[6] They may have been domesticated as long as 5,000 years ago.[55] Numerous breeds of fancy pigeons of all sizes, colours, and types have been bred.[56] Domesticated pigeons are used as homing pigeons as well as food and pets. They were in the past also used as carrier pigeons.
War pigeons
Main article: War pigeon

So-called war pigeons have played significant roles during wartime, and many pigeons have received awards and medals for their services in saving hundreds of human lives.
Medical uses

Pigeons have notably been "employed" as medical imaging data sorters. They have been successfully trained under research conditions to examine data on a screen for the purposes of detecting breast cancer. They appear to use their innate visual navigation skills to do so.[57]
Feral pigeon
Main article: Feral pigeon
A feral in Nanjing, China

Many domestic birds have got lost, escaped or been released over the years and have given rise to feral pigeons. These show a variety of plumages, although many have the blue-barred pattern as does the pure rock dove. Feral pigeons are found in cities and towns all over the world.[58] The scarcity of the pure wild species is partly due to interbreeding with feral birds.[20]
Human health

Contact with pigeon droppings poses a minor risk of contracting histoplasmosis, cryptococcosis and psittacosis,[59] and long-term exposure to both droppings and feathers can induce an allergy known as bird fancier's lung. Pigeons are not a major concern in the spread of West Nile virus: though they can contract it, they apparently do not transmit it.[60]

Some contagions are transmitted by pigeons; for example, the bacteria Chlamydophila psittaci is endemic among pigeons[61] and causes psittacosis in humans. It is generally transmitted from handling pigeons or their droppings (more commonly the latter). Psittacosis is a serious disease but rarely fatal (less than 1%). Pigeons are also important vectors for various species of the bacteria Salmonella,[62][63] which causes diseases such as salmonellosis and paratyphoid fever.

Pigeons are also known to host avian mites, which can infest human habitation and bite humans, a condition known as gamasoidosis.[64][65] However, infesting mammals is relatively rare.[66]
Avian influenza

Pigeons may, however, carry and spread avian influenza. One study has shown that adult pigeons are not clinically susceptible to the most dangerous strain of avian influenza, H5N1, and that they do not transmit the virus to poultry.[67] Other studies have presented evidence of clinical signs and neurological lesions resulting from infection but found that the pigeons did not transmit the disease to poultry reared in direct contact with them.[68][69] Pigeons were found to be "resistant or minimally susceptible" to other strains of avian influenza, such as the H7N7.[70]

Research into whether pigeons play a part in spreading bird flu have shown pigeons do not carry the deadly H5N1 strain.[71] Three studies have been done since the late 1990s by the US Agriculture Department's Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory in Athens, Georgia, according to the center's director, David Swayne. The lab has been working on bird flu since the 1970s. In one experiment, researchers squirted into pigeons' mouths liquid drops that contained the highly pathogenic H5N1 virus from a Hong Kong sample. The birds received 100 to 1,000 times the concentration that wild birds would encounter in nature. "We couldn't infect the pigeons," Swayne said. "So that's good news."[72][73]
Stages of lifecycle

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The common wood pigeon or common woodpigeon (Columba palumbus), also known as simply wood pigeon, wood-pigeon or woodpigeon, is a large species in the dove and pigeon family (Columbidae), native to the western Palearctic. It belongs to the genus Columba, which includes closely related species such as the rock dove (Columba livia). It has historically been known as the ring dove, and is locally known in southeast England as the "culver";[2] the latter name has given rise to several areas known for keeping pigeons to be named after it, such as Culver Down. It has a flexible diet, predominantly feeding on vegetable matter, including cereal crops, leading to them being regarded as an agricultural pest. Wood pigeons are extensively hunted over large parts of their range, but this does not seem to have a great impact on their population.

Taxonomy

The common wood pigeon was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae. He placed it with all the other pigeons in the genus Columba and coined the binomial name Columba palumbus.[3] The specific epithet palumbus is from the Latin palumbes for a wood pigeon.[4]

Five subspecies are recognised, one of which is now extinct:[5]

C. p. palumbus Linnaeus, 1758 – Europe to western Siberia and Iraq; Northwest Africa
† C. p. maderensis Tschusi, 1904 – Madeira (extinct)
C. p. azorica Hartert, 1905 – the eastern and central Azores
C. p. iranica (Zarudny, 1910) – southwestern and northern Iran to southwestern Turkmenistan
C. p. casiotis (Bonaparte, 1854) – southeastern Iran and Kazakhstan to western China, northwestern India and Nepal

† = extinct
Description
Adult common wood pigeon, photograph taken in Birmingham, England

The three Western European Columba pigeons, common wood pigeon, stock dove and rock dove, though superficially alike, have very distinctive characteristics; the common wood pigeon may be identified at once by its larger size at 38–44.5 cm (15–17+1⁄2 in) and weight 300–615 g (10+5⁄8–21+3⁄4 oz), and the white on its neck and wing.[6] It is otherwise a basically grey bird, with a pinkish breast. The wingspan can range from 68 to 80 cm (27 to 31 in) and the wing chord measures 24 to 25.4 cm (9+1⁄2 to 10 in). The tail measures 13.8 to 15 cm (5+1⁄2 to 6 in), the bill is 1.9 to 2.2 cm (3⁄4 to 7⁄8 in) and the tarsus is 2.5 to 2.8 cm (1 to 1+1⁄8 in).[7] Adult birds bear a series of green and white patches on their necks, and a pink patch on their chest. The eye colour is a pale yellow,[8] in contrast to that of rock doves, which is orange-red, and the stock pigeon, which is black.

Juvenile birds do not have the white patches on either side of the neck. When they are about 6 months old (about three months out of the nest) they gain small white patches on both sides of the neck, which gradually enlarge until they are fully formed when the bird is about 6–8 months old (approx. ages only). Juvenile birds also have a greyer beak and an overall lighter grey appearance than adult birds. The call is a characteristic cooing, coo-COO-coo--coo-coo.
Distribution and habitat

In the colder northern and eastern parts of Europe and western Asia the common wood pigeon is a migrant, but in southern and western Europe it is a well distributed and often abundant resident. In Great Britain wood pigeons are commonly seen in parks and gardens[9] and are seen with increasing numbers in towns and cities.
Behaviour
A flock of common wood pigeons feeding in a field
Adult sitting on its nest in a tree
Egg
Hatching of a Common Wood Pigeon

Its flight is quick, performed by regular beats, with an occasional sharp flick of the wings, characteristic of pigeons in general. It takes off with a loud clattering. It perches well, and in its nuptial display walks along a horizontal branch with swelled neck, lowered wings, and fanned tail. During the display flight the bird climbs, the wings are smartly cracked like a whiplash, and the bird glides down on stiff wings. The common wood pigeon is gregarious, often forming very large flocks outside the breeding season. Like many species of pigeon, wood pigeons take advantage of trees and buildings to gain a vantage point over the surrounding area, and their distinctive call means that they are usually heard before they are seen.

Wood pigeons are known to fiercely defend their territory, and will fight each other to gain access to nesting and roosting locations. Male wood pigeons will typically attempt to drive competitors off by threat displays and pursuit, but will also directly fight, jumping and striking their rival with both wings.[10]

This species can be an agricultural pest, and it is often shot, being a legal quarry species in most European countries. It is wary in rural areas, but often quite tame where it is not persecuted.
Breeding
Two young Columba palumbus in a nest

It breeds in trees in woods, parks and gardens, laying two white eggs in a simple stick nest which hatch after 17 to 19 days. Wood pigeons seem to have a preference for trees near roadways and rivers. Males exhibit aggressive behaviour towards each other during the breeding season by jumping and flapping wings at each other. Their plumage becomes much darker, especially the head, during hot summer periods. Breeding can happen year round if there is food abundant however breeding season most commonly occurs in autumn usually in the months of August and September.

The nests are vulnerable to attack, particularly by crows. The young usually fly at 33 to 34 days; however, if the nest is disturbed, some young may be able to survive having left the nest as early as 20 days from hatching.

In a study carried out using ring-recovery data, the survival rate for juveniles in their first year was 52 per cent, and the adult annual survival rate was 61 per cent.[11] For birds that survive the first year the typical lifespan is thus only three years,[12] but the maximum recorded age is 17 years and 8 months for a bird ringed and recovered on the Orkney Islands.[13][14]
Diet

Most of its diet is vegetable, round and fleshy leaves from Caryophyllaceae, Asteraceae, and cruciferous vegetables taken from open fields or gardens and lawns; young shoots and seedlings are favoured, and it will take grain, pine nuts, and certain fruits and berries. In the autumn they also eat figs and acorns, and in winter buds of trees and bushes. They will also eat larvae, ants, and small worms. They need open water to drink and bathe in. Young common wood pigeons swiftly become fat, as a result of the crop milk they are fed by their parents. This is an extremely rich fluid that is produced in the adult birds' crops during the breeding season.[15][16] Due to their feeding on cereal crops, wood pigeons are considered an agricultural pest.
Calls

In Ireland and the UK, the traditional mnemonic for the distinctive call of the bird has been interpreted as "Take two cows, Teddy", or "Take two cows, Taffy".[17][18] Another interpretation for the birdsong has been "My toe bleeds, Betty".[19]
Predators

Predators include:

Eurasian sparrowhawk
Northern goshawk
Domestic cat
Crows

References

BirdLife International (2018). "Columba palumbus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018: e.T22690103A131924602. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22690103A131924602.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
in the Oxford English Dictionary 2nd ed., it is known as; "culver" entry, 1st sense
Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae:Laurentii Salvii. p. 163.
Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. p. 290. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (2020). "Pigeons". IOC World Bird List Version 10.1. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 17 March 2020.
CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (1992), ISBN 978-0-8493-4258-5.
David Gibbs, Eustace Barnes & John Cox (2001). A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-07886-2.
"Woodpigeon Bird Facts (Columba palumbus)". Bird Fact. Retrieved 2021-08-02.
Chandler, David (2007). RSPB Children's Guided To Bird Watching. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-7136-8795-8.
Cramp, S. (June 1958). "Territorial and other Behaviour of the Woodpigeon". Bird Study. 5 (2): 55–66. doi:10.1080/00063655809475903. ISSN 0006-3657.
Saether, B.-E. (1989). "Survival rates in relation to body weight in European birds". Ornis Scandinavica. 20 (1): 13–21. doi:10.2307/3676702. JSTOR 3676702.
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Sources

Cramp, Stanley; et al., eds. (1985). "Columba palumbus Woodpigeon". Handbook of the Birds of Europe the Middle East and North Africa. The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume IV: Terns to Woodpeckers. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 311–329. ISBN 978-0-19-857507-8.