Diamphidia

Superregnum: Eukaryota
Cladus: Unikonta
Cladus: Opisthokonta
Cladus: Holozoa
Regnum: Animalia
Subregnum: Eumetazoa
Cladus: Bilateria
Cladus: Nephrozoa
Cladus: Protostomia
Cladus: Ecdysozoa
Cladus: Panarthropoda
Phylum: Arthropoda
Cladus: Pancrustacea
Cladus: Allotriocarida
Subphylum: Hexapoda
Classis: Insecta
Cladus: Dicondylia
Subclassis: Pterygota
Infraclassis: Neoptera
Cladus: Eumetabola
Cladus: Holometabola
Superordo: Coleopterida
Ordo: Coleoptera
Subordo: Polyphaga
Infraordo: Cucujiformia
Cladus: Phytophaga
Superfamilia: Chrysomeloidea

Familia: Chrysomelidae
Subfamilia: Galerucinae
Tribus: Alticini
Genus: Diamphidia
Species: D. femoralis – D. vittatipennis
Name

Diamphidia Gerstaecker, 1855 : 638

Type species: Diamphidia femoralis Gerstaecker, 1855, by original monotypy.

Diamphidia femoralis

References
Primary references

Gerstaecker, C.E.A. 1855. Neuer Coleopteren und Lepidopteren. Bericht über die zur Bekanntmachung geeigneten Verhandlungen der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin 1855: 636–639. BHL Reference page.

Additional references

iamphidia, or Bushman arrow-poison beetle, is an African genus of flea beetles, in the family Chrysomelidae.

The larvae and pupae of Diamphidia produce a toxin used by Bushmen as an arrow poison.[1][2] The Finnish explorer Hendrik Jacob Wikar, who travelled in Southern Africa in 1773–1779, described the larvae as "poisonous worms". Hans Schinz was the first scientist to document the process by which the Bushmen extract and use the poison.

The adults and larvae of Diamphidia nigroornata feed on Commiphora angolensis (Engler), whereas Diamphidia vittatipennis eat African myrrh.
Life cycle
Diamphidia nigroornata

Adult females of Diamphidia femoralis Gerstaecker and Diamphidia nigroornata (Stål) lay their eggs on the stems of Commiphora species and coat the eggs with their faeces which hardens into a protective covering. As the larval instars develop, the pellets of their own faeces remain attached to their backs and posteriors.[3] The final instar sheds this faecal coat when entering the soil to pupate. The same behaviour is found in Blepharida, a flea beetle and Polyclada, the African leaf beetle.[3] The Diamphidia larvae burrow down for a depth of up to 1 metre in the sand under the food plant, where they may lie dormant for several years before going through a very rapid pupal phase.
Toxin

Diamphotoxin, the toxic compound in Diamphidia, is highly labile, and has a low molecular weight. It is bound to a protein that protects it from deactivation.[2][4] It causes an increased permeability of cell membranes, which, while not affecting normal ionic flow between cells, allows easy access to all small ions, thereby fatally disrupting normal cellular ionic levels.[5] Although it has no neurotoxic effect, it produces a lethal haemolytic effect, and may reduce haemoglobin levels by as much as 75%, leading to haemoglobinuria.[6]

Diamphotoxin is only toxic to mammals when injected into the bloodstream, not when ingested, making it unclear how it protects the larvae. It has been hypothesized that the toxin may be harmful on ingestion for non-mammal species.[1]
Parasite host

Diamphidia is parasitised by a carabid Lebistina beetle, the larva of which attaches itself to a mature Diamphidia larva, clinging to it until the Diamphidia has formed its cocoon, enclosing both host and parasite, and then feeding on its host's soft tissue. The Lebistina larvae are more toxic than their hosts and are preferred by San hunters for arrow poison.[1]

References

How San hunters use beetles to poison their arrows Archived 2012-06-03 at the Wayback Machine, Biodiversity Explorer website
Woollard JM, Fuhrman FA, Mosher HS (1984). "The Bushman arrow toxin, Diamphidia toxin: isolation from pupae of Diamphidia nigro-ornata". Toxicon. 22 (6): 937–46. Bibcode:1984Txcn...22..937W. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(84)90185-5. PMID 6523515.
Chaboo CS, Grobbelaar E, Larsen A, Fecal Ecology in Leaf Beetles: Novel Records in the African Arrow-Poison Beetles, Diamphidia Gerstaecker and Polyclada Chevrolat (Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae) (2007) The Coleopterists Bulletin: Vol. 61, No. 2 pp. 297–309
Mebs D, Brüning F, Pfaff N, Neuwinger HD (July 1982). "Preliminary studies on the chemical properties of the toxic principle from Diamphidia nigroornata larvae, a source of Bushman arrow poison". J Ethnopharmacol. 6 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1016/0378-8741(82)90068-X. PMID 7109661.
TF Jacobsen, O Sand, T Bjøro, HE Karlsen, JG Iversen, Effect of Diamphidia toxin, a Bushman arrow poison, on ionic permeability in nucleated cells, Toxicon (1990) 28: 435–44
CY Kao, MJ Salwen, SL Hu, HM Pitter, JM Woollard, Diamphidia toxin, the bushmen's arrow poison: possible mechanism of prey-killing[permanent dead link], Toxicon (1989) 27: 1351–66; accessed on ionchannels.org website