.
Mars
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun in the Solar System. The planet is named after the Roman god of war, Mars. It is often described as the "Red Planet", as the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance.[11] Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere, having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the volcanoes, valleys, deserts, and polar ice caps of Earth. The rotational period and seasonal cycles of Mars are likewise similar to those of Earth. Mars is the site of Olympus Mons, the highest known mountain in the Solar System, and of Valles Marineris, the largest canyon. The smooth Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere covers 40% of the planet and may be a giant impact feature.[12][13] Unlike Earth, Mars is now geologically and tectonically inactive.[citation needed]
Until the first flyby of Mars occurred in 1965, by Mariner 4, many speculated about the presence of liquid water on the planet's surface. This was based on observed periodic variations in light and dark patches, particularly in the polar latitudes, which appeared to be seas and continents; long, dark striations were interpreted by some as irrigation channels for liquid water. These straight line features were later explained as optical illusions, yet of all the planets in the Solar System other than Earth, Mars is the most likely to harbor liquid water, and thus to harbor life.[14] Geological evidence gathered by unmanned missions suggest that Mars once had large-scale water coverage on its surface, while small geyser-like water flows may have occurred during the past decade.[15] In 2005, radar data revealed the presence of large quantities of water ice at the poles,[16] and at mid-latitudes.[17][18] The Phoenix lander directly sampled water ice in shallow martian soil on July 31, 2008.[19]
Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are small and irregularly shaped. These may be captured asteroids, similar to 5261 Eureka, a Martian Trojan asteroid. Mars is currently host to three functional orbiting spacecraft: Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. On the surface are the two Mars Exploration Rovers (Spirit and Opportunity) and several inert landers and rovers, both successful and unsuccessful. The Phoenix lander completed its mission on the surface in 2008. Observations by NASA's now-defunct Mars Global Surveyor show evidence that parts of the southern polar ice cap have been receding.[20]
Mars can easily be seen from Earth with the naked eye. Its apparent magnitude reaches −2.91,[5] a brightness surpassed only by Jupiter, Venus, the Moon, and the Sun. Mars has an average opposition distance of 78 million km but can come as close as 55.7 million km during a close approach, such as occurred in 2003.[5]
Physical characteristics
Size comparison of Earth and Mars.
Mars has approximately half the radius of Earth. It is less dense than Earth, having about 15% of Earth's volume and 11% of the mass. Its surface area is only slightly less than the total area of Earth's dry land.[5] While Mars is larger and more massive than Mercury, Mercury has a higher density. This results in the two planets having a nearly identical gravitational pull at the surface—that of Mars is stronger by less than 1%. Mars is also roughly intermediate in size, mass, and surface gravity between Earth and Earth's Moon (the Moon is about half the diameter of Mars, whereas Earth is twice; the Earth is about nine times more massive than Mars, and the Moon one-ninth as massive). The red-orange appearance of the Martian surface is caused by iron(III) oxide, more commonly known as hematite, or rust.[21]
Geology
Main article: Geology of Mars
Volcanic plateaus (red) and impact basins (blue) dominate this topographic map of Mars
Rock strewn surface imaged by Mars Pathfinder
Based on orbital observations and the examination of the Martian meteorite collection, the surface of Mars appears to be composed primarily of basalt. Some evidence suggests that a portion of the Martian surface is more silica-rich than typical basalt, and may be similar to andesitic rocks on Earth; however, these observations may also be explained by silica glass. Much of the surface is deeply covered by finely grained iron(III) oxide dust.[22][23]
Although Mars has no evidence of a current structured global magnetic field,[24] observations show that parts of the planet's crust have been magnetized, and that alternating polarity reversals of its dipole field have occurred in the past. This paleomagnetism of magnetically susceptible minerals has properties that are very similar to the alternating bands found on the ocean floors of Earth. One theory, published in 1999 and re-examined in October 2005 (with the help of the Mars Global Surveyor), is that these bands demonstrate plate tectonics on Mars four billion years ago, before the planetary dynamo ceased to function and caused the planet's magnetic field to fade away.[25]
Current models of the planet's interior imply a core region about 1480 km in radius, consisting primarily of iron with about 14–17% sulfur. This iron sulfide core is partially fluid, and has twice the concentration of the lighter elements than exist at Earth's core. The core is surrounded by a silicate mantle that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet, but now appears to be inactive. The average thickness of the planet's crust is about 50 km, with a maximum thickness of 125 km.[26] Earth's crust, averaging 40 km, is only one third as thick as Mars’ crust, relative to the sizes of the two planets.
During the Solar system formation, Mars was created out of the protoplanetary disk that orbited the Sun as the result of a stochastic process of run-away accretion. Mars has many distinctive chemical features caused by its position in the Solar System. Elements with comparatively low boiling points such as chlorine, phosphorus and sulphur are much more common on Mars than Earth; these elements were probably removed from areas closer to the Sun by the young Sun's powerful solar wind.[27] This same effect is thought to have originally provided Mars with more oxygen than the Earth had; reactions between iron and the excess oxygen may be the reason Mars has much more[vague] iron in its crust and mantle than does the Earth.[citation needed]
After the formation of the planets, all were subjected to the "Late Heavy Bombardment". About 60% of the surface of Mars shows an impact record from that era.[28][29][30] Much of the rest of the surface of Mars is probably underlain by immense impact basins that date from this time—there is evidence of an enormous impact basin in the northern hemisphere of Mars, spanning 10600 km by 8500 km, or roughly four times larger than the Moon's South Pole-Aitken basin, the largest impact basin yet discovered.[12][13] This theory suggests that Mars was struck by a Pluto-sized body about four billion years ago. The event, thought to be the cause of the Martian hemispheric dichotomy, created the smooth Borealis basin that covers 40% of the planet.[31][32]
The geological history of Mars can be split into many epochs, but the following are the three primary epochs:[33][34]
* Noachian epoch (named after Noachis Terra): Formation of the oldest extant surfaces of Mars, 4.5 billion years ago to 3.5 billion years ago. Noachian age surfaces are scarred by many large impact craters. The Tharsis bulge, a volcanic upland, is thought to have formed during this period, with extensive flooding by liquid water late in the epoch.
* Hesperian epoch (named after Hesperia Planum): 3.5 billion years ago to 1.8 billion years ago. The Hesperian epoch is marked by the formation of extensive lava plains.
* Amazonian epoch (named after Amazonis Planitia): 1.8 billion years ago to present. Amazonian regions have few meteorite impact craters, but are otherwise quite varied. Olympus Mons formed during this period, along with lava flows elsewhere on Mars.
Some geological activity is still taking place on Mars. The Athabasca Valles is home to sheet-like lava flows up to about 200 Mya. Water flows in the grabens called the Cerberus Fossae occurred less than 20 Mya, indicating equally recent volcanic intrusions.[35] On February 19, 2008, images from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter showed evidence of an avalanche from a 700 m high cliff.[36]
Soil
Main article: Martian soil
The Phoenix lander returned data showing Martian soil to be slightly alkaline and containing elements such as magnesium, sodium, potassium and chloride. These nutrients are found in gardens on Earth, and are necessary for growth of plants such as asparagus.[37] Experiments performed by the Lander showed that the Martian soil has a basic acidity of 8.3, and may contain traces of the salt perchlorate.[38][39]
Tharsis Tholus dark streak, as seen by Hirise. It is located in the middle left of this picture. Tharsis Tholus is just off to the right.
Streaks are common across Mars and new ones appear frequently on steep slopes of craters, troughs, and valleys. The streaks are dark at first and get lighter with age. Sometimes the streaks start in a tiny area which then spreads out for hundreds of metres. They have also been seen to follow the edges of boulders and other obstacles in their path. The commonly accepted theories include that they are dark underlying layers of soil revealed after avalanches of bright dust or dust devils.[40] However, several explanations have been put forward, some of which involve water or even the growth of organisms.[41]
Hydrology
Photo of microscopic rock forms indicating past signs of water, taken by Opportunity
Main article: Water on Mars
Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars due to its low atmospheric pressure, except at the lowest elevations for short periods.[42][43] However, the two polar ice caps appear to be made largely of water.[44][45] The volume of water ice in the south polar ice cap, if melted, would be sufficient to cover the entire planetary surface to a depth of 11 m.[46] A permafrost mantle stretches from the pole to latitudes of about 60°.[44]
Large quantities of water ice are thought to be trapped underneath the thick cryosphere of Mars. Radar data from Mars Express and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter show large quantities of water ice both at the poles (July 2005)[16][47] and at mid-latitudes (November 2008).[17] The Phoenix lander directly sampled water ice in shallow Martian soil on July 31, 2008.[19]
A large release of liquid water is thought to have occurred when the Valles Marineris formed early in the history of Mars, forming massive outflow channels. A smaller outflow may have occurred when the Cerberus Fossae chasm opened about 5 million years ago, leaving a supposed sea of frozen ice still visible on the Elysium Planitia, centered at Cerberus Palus.[48] However, the morphology of this region may correspond to the pooling of lava flows, causing a superficial morphology similar to ice flows,[49] which probably draped the terrain established by earlier massive floods of Athabasca Valles.[50] The rough surface texture at decimeter (dm) scales, a thermal inertia comparable to that of the Gusev plains, and the presence of hydrovolcanic cones, are consistent with the lava flow hypothesis.[50] Furthermore, the stoichiometric mass fraction of water in this area, to tens of centimeter depths, is only about 4%,[51] which is easily attributable to hydrated minerals,[52] and inconsistent with the presence of near-surface ice.
The high resolution Mars Orbiter Camera on the Mars Global Surveyor has taken pictures which give much more detail about the history of liquid water on the surface of Mars. Despite the many giant flood channels and associated tree-like network of tributaries found on Mars, there are no smaller scale structures that would indicate the origin of the flood waters. Weathering processes may have denuded these, indicating that the river valleys are old features. High resolution observations from spacecraft show thousands of features along crater and canyon walls that appear similar to terrestrial gullies. The gullies tend to be in the highlands of the southern hemisphere and to face the Equator; all are poleward of 30° latitude.[53] No partially degraded gullies have formed by weathering and no superimposed impact craters have been observed, indicating that these are very young features.
Two photographs, taken six years apart, show a gully on Mars with what appears to be new deposits of sediment. Michael Meyer, the lead scientist for NASA's Mars Exploration Program, argues that only the flow of material with a high liquid water content could produce such a debris pattern and colouring. Whether the water results from precipitation, underground or another source remains an open question.[54] However, alternative scenarios have been suggested, including the possibility of the deposits being caused by carbon dioxide frost or by the movement of dust on the Martian surface.[55][56]
Further evidence that liquid water once existed on the surface of Mars comes from the detection of specific minerals such as hematite and goethite, both of which sometimes form in the presence of water.[57] Some of the evidence believed to indicate ancient water basins and flows has been negated by higher resolution studies taken at resolution about 30 cm by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.[58] However, in 2004, Opportunity detected the presence of the mineral jarosite on "El Capitan", a rock on the outcrop of Opportunity Ledge. Jarosite forms only in the presence of acidic water, and the presence of jarosite is seen as proof that water once existed on Mars.[59]
Polar caps
the northern ice cap of Mars
Mars has two permanent polar ice caps. During a pole's winter, it lies in continuous darkness, chilling the surface and causing 25–30% of the atmosphere to condense out into thick slabs of CO2 ice (dry ice).[60] When the poles are again exposed to sunlight, the frozen CO2 sublimes, creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 km/h. These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor, giving rise to Earth-like frost and large cirrus clouds. Clouds of water-ice were photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004.[61]
The polar caps at both poles consist primarily of water ice. Frozen carbon dioxide accumulates as a thin layer about one metre thick on the north cap in the northern winter only, while the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover about eight metres thick.[62] The northern polar cap has a diameter of about 1,000 kilometres during the northern Mars summer,[63] and contains about 1.6 million cubic kilometres of ice, which if spread evenly on the cap would be 2 kilometres thick.[64] (This compares to a volume of 2.85 million cubic kilometres for the Greenland ice sheet.) The southern polar cap has a diameter of 350 km and a thickness of 3 km.[65] The total volume of ice in the south polar cap plus the adjacent layered deposits has also been estimated at 1.6 million cubic kilometres.[66] Both polar caps show spiral troughs, which are believed to form as a result of differential solar heating, coupled with the sublimation of ice and condensation of water vapor.[67][68]
The seasonal frosting and defrosting of the southern ice cap results in the formation of spider-like radial channels carved on 1 meter thick ice by sunlight. Then, sublimed CO2—and probably water—increase pressure in their interior producing geyser-like eruptions of cold fluids often mixed with dark basaltic sand or mud.[69][70][71][72] This process is rapid, observed happening in the space of a few days, weeks or months, a growth rate rather unusual in geology – especially for Mars.
Geography
Main article: Geography of Mars
See also: Category:Surface features of Mars
Although better remembered for mapping the Moon, Johann Heinrich Mädler and Wilhelm Beer were the first "areographers". They began by establishing that most of Mars’ surface features were permanent, and more precisely determining the planet's rotation period. In 1840, Mädler combined ten years of observations and drew the first map of Mars. Rather than giving names to the various markings, Beer and Mädler simply designated them with letters; Meridian Bay (Sinus Meridiani) was thus feature "a."[73]
Today, features on Mars are named from a number of sources. Large albedo features retain many of the older names, but are often updated to reflect new knowledge of the nature of the features. For example, Nix Olympica (the snows of Olympus) has become Olympus Mons (Mount Olympus).[74] The surface of Mars as seen from Earth is divided into two kinds of areas, with differing albedo. The paler plains covered with dust and sand rich in reddish iron oxides were once thought of as Martian 'continents' and given names like Arabia Terra (land of Arabia) or Amazonis Planitia (Amazonian plain). The dark features were thought to be seas, hence their names Mare Erythraeum, Mare Sirenum and Aurorae Sinus. The largest dark feature seen from Earth is Syrtis Major.[75] The permanent northern polar ice cap is named Planum Boreum, while the southern cap is called Planum Australe.
Mars’ equator is defined by its rotation, but the location of its Prime Meridian was specified, as was Earth's (at Greenwich), by choice of an arbitrary point; Mädler and Beer selected a line in 1830 for their first maps of Mars. After the spacecraft Mariner 9 provided extensive imagery of Mars in 1972, a small crater (later called Airy-0), located in the Sinus Meridiani ("Middle Bay" or "Meridian Bay"), was chosen for the definition of 0.0° longitude to coincide with the original selection.[76]
Since Mars has no oceans and hence no 'sea level', a zero-elevation surface or mean gravity surface also had to be selected. Zero altitude is defined by the height at which there is 610.5 Pa (6.105 mbar) of atmospheric pressure.[77] This pressure corresponds to the triple point of water, and is about 0.6% of the sea level surface pressure on Earth (.006 atm).[78]
This approximate true-color image, taken by the Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity, shows the view of Victoria Crater from Cape Verde. It was captured over a three-week period, from October 16 – November 6, 2006.
Impact topography
The dichotomy of Martian topography is striking: northern plains flattened by lava flows contrast with the southern highlands, pitted and cratered by ancient impacts. Research in 2008 has presented evidence regarding a theory proposed in 1980 postulating that, four billion years ago, the northern hemisphere of Mars was struck by an object one-tenth to two-thirds the size of the Moon. If validated, this would make the northern hemisphere of Mars the site of an impact crater 10,600 km long by 8,500 km wide, or roughly the area of Europe, Asia, and Australia combined, surpassing the South Pole-Aitken basin as the largest impact crater in the Solar System.[12][13]
Mars is scarred by a number of impact craters: a total of 43,000 craters with a diameter of 5 km or greater have been found.[79] The largest confirmed of these is the Hellas impact basin, a light albedo feature clearly visible from Earth.[80] Due to the smaller mass of Mars, the probability of an object colliding with the planet is about half that of the Earth. However, Mars is located closer to the asteroid belt, so it has an increased chance of being struck by materials from that source. Mars is also more likely to be struck by short-period comets, i.e., those that lie within the orbit of Jupiter.[81] In spite of this, there are far fewer craters on Mars compared with the Moon because the atmosphere of Mars provides protection against small meteors. Some craters have a morphology that suggests the ground became wet after the meteor impacted.[82]
Tectonic sites
Olympus Mons, the highest mountain in the solar system.
THEMIS image of cave entrances on Mars. The pits have been informally named (A) Dena, (B) Chloe, (C) Wendy, (D) Annie, (E) Abby (left) and Nikki, and (F) Jeanne.
The shield volcano, Olympus Mons (Mount Olympus), at 27 km is the highest known mountain in the Solar System.[83] It is an extinct volcano in the vast upland region Tharsis, which contains several other large volcanoes. Olympus Mons is over three times the height of Mount Everest, which in comparison stands at just over 8.8 km.[84]
The large canyon, Valles Marineris (Latin for Mariner Valleys, also known as Agathadaemon in the old canal maps), has a length of 4,000 km and a depth of up to 7 km. The length of Valles Marineris is equivalent to the length of Europe and extends across one-fifth the circumference of Mars. By comparison, the Grand Canyon on Earth is only 446 km long and nearly 2 km deep. Valles Marineris was formed due to the swelling of the Tharsis area which caused the crust in the area of Valles Marineris to collapse. Another large canyon is Ma'adim Vallis (Ma'adim is Hebrew for Mars). It is 700 km long and again much bigger than the Grand Canyon with a width of 20 km and a depth of 2 km in some places. It is possible that Ma'adim Vallis was flooded with liquid water in the past.[85]
Other features
Images from the Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) aboard NASA's Mars Odyssey orbiter have revealed seven possible cave entrances on the flanks of the Arsia Mons volcano.[86] The caves, named after loved ones of their discoverers, are collectively known as the "seven sisters."[87] Cave entrances measure from 100 m to 252 m wide and they are believed to be at least 73 m to 96 m deep. Because light does not reach the floor of most of the caves, it is likely that they extend much deeper than these lower estimates and widen below the surface. "Dena" is the only exception; its floor is visible and was measured to be 130 m deep. The interiors of these caverns may be protected from micrometeoroids, UV radiation, solar flares and high energy particles that bombard the planet's surface.[88]
Atmosphere
Main article: Atmosphere of Mars
the thin atmosphere of Mars, visible on the horizon in this low-orbit photo.
Traces of methane plumes in Mars’ atmosphere during northern summer – NASA
Mars lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago[89], so the solar wind interacts directly with the Martian ionosphere, keeping the atmosphere thinner than it would otherwise be by stripping away atoms from the outer layer. Both Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Express have detected these ionised atmospheric particles trailing off into space behind Mars.[89][90] Compared to Earth, the atmosphere of Mars is quite thin. Atmospheric pressure on the surface ranges from a low of 30 Pa (0.030 kPa) on Olympus Mons to over 1,155 Pa (1.155 kPa) in the Hellas Planitia, with a mean pressure at the surface level of 600 Pa (0.60 kPa).[91] The surface pressure of Mars is equal to the pressure found 35 km[92] above the Earth's surface. This is less than 1% of the Earth's surface pressure (101.3 kPa). The scale height of the atmosphere is about 10.8 km,[93] which is higher than Earth's (6 km) because the surface gravity of Mars is only about 38% of Earth's, an effect offset by both the lower temperature and 50% higher average molecular weight of the atmosphere of Mars.
The atmosphere on Mars consists of 95% carbon dioxide, 3% nitrogen, 1.6% argon and contains traces of oxygen and water.[5] The atmosphere is quite dusty, containing particulates about 1.5 µm in diameter which give the Martian sky a tawny color when seen from the surface.[94]
Methane has been detected in the Martian atmosphere with a concentration of about 30 ppb by volume;[10][95] it occurs in extended plumes, and the profiles imply that the methane was released from discrete regions. In northern midsummer, the principal plume contained 19,000 metric tons of methane, with an estimated source strength of 0.6 kilogram per second.[96][97] The profiles suggest that there may be two local source regions, the first centered near 30° N, 260° W and the second near 0°, 310° W.[96] It is estimated that Mars must produce 270 ton/year of methane.[96][98]
The implied methane destruction lifetime may be as long as about 4 Earth years and as short as about 0.6 Earth years.[96][99] This rapid turnover would indicate an active source of the gas on the planet. Volcanic activity, cometary impacts, and the presence of methanogenic microbial life forms are among possible sources. Methane could also be produced by a non-biological process called serpentinization[b] involving water, carbon dioxide, and the mineral olivine, which is known to be common on Mars.[100]
Climate
Mars from Hubble Space Telescope October 28, 2005 with dust storm visible.
Main article: Climate of Mars
Of all the planets in the Solar System, the seasons of Mars are the most Earth-like, due to the similar tilts of the two planets' rotational axes. However, the lengths of the Martian seasons are about twice those of Earth's, as Mars’ greater distance from the Sun leads to the Martian year being about two Earth years long. Martian surface temperatures vary from lows of about -87 °C during the polar winters to highs of up to -5 °C in summers.[42] The wide range in temperatures is due to the thin atmosphere which cannot store much solar heat, the low atmospheric pressure, and the low thermal inertia of Martian soil.[101] The planet is also 1.52 times as far from the sun as Earth, resulting in just 43 percent of the amount of sunlight.[102]
If Mars had an Earth-like orbit, its seasons would be similar to Earth's because its axial tilt is similar to Earth's. However, the comparatively large eccentricity of the Martian orbit has a significant effect. Mars is near perihelion when it is summer in the southern hemisphere and winter in the north, and near aphelion when it is winter in the southern hemisphere and summer in the north. As a result, the seasons in the southern hemisphere are more extreme and the seasons in the northern are milder than would otherwise be the case. The summer temperatures in the south can reach up to 30 °C warmer than the equivalent summer temperatures in the north.[103]
Mars also has the largest dust storms in our Solar System. These can vary from a storm over a small area, to gigantic storms that cover the entire planet. They tend to occur when Mars is closest to the Sun, and have been shown to increase the global temperature.[104]
Orbit and rotation
Mars’ average distance from the Sun is roughly 230 million km (1.5 AU) and its orbital period is 687 (Earth) days. The solar day (or sol) on Mars is only slightly longer than an Earth day: 24 hours, 39 minutes, and 35.244 seconds. A Martian year is equal to 1.8809 Earth years, or 1 year, 320 days, and 18.2 hours.[5]
The axial tilt of Mars is 25.19 degrees, which is similar to the axial tilt of the Earth.[5] As a result, Mars has seasons like the Earth, though on Mars they are nearly twice as long given its longer year. Currently the orientation of the north pole of Mars is close to the star Deneb.[7] Mars passed its perihelion in April 2009[105] and its aphelion in March 2010.[105]
Mars has a relatively pronounced orbital eccentricity of about 0.09; of the seven other planets in the Solar System, only Mercury shows greater eccentricity. However, it is known that in the past Mars has had a much more circular orbit than it does currently. At one point 1.35 million Earth years ago, Mars had an eccentricity of roughly 0.002, much less than that of Earth today.[106] The Mars cycle of eccentricity is 96,000 Earth years compared to the Earth's cycle of 100,000 years.[107] However, Mars also has a much longer cycle of eccentricity with a period of 2.2 million Earth years, and this overshadows the 96,000-year cycle in the eccentricity graphs. For the last 35,000 years the orbit of Mars has been getting slightly more eccentric because of the gravitational effects of the other planets. The closest distance between the Earth and Mars will continue to mildly decrease for the next 25,000 years.[108]
ThePlanets Orbits Ceres Mars PolarView.svg The image to the left shows a comparison between Mars and Ceres, a dwarf planet in the Asteroid Belt, as seen from the north ecliptic pole, while the image to the right is as seen from the ascending node. The segments of orbits south of the ecliptic are plotted in darker colors. The perihelia (q) and aphelia (Q) are labelled with the date of the nearest passage. The orbit of Mars is shown in red, Ceres is in yellow. ThePlanets Orbits Ceres Mars.svg
Moons
Main article: Moons of Mars
Phobos (left) and Deimos (right)
Mars has two tiny natural moons, Phobos and Deimos, which orbit very close to the planet. Their known composition suggests the moons are captured asteroids but their origin remains uncertain.[109]
Both satellites were discovered in 1877 by Asaph Hall, and are named after the characters Phobos (panic/fear) and Deimos (terror/dread) who, in Greek mythology, accompanied their father Ares, god of war, into battle. Ares was known as Mars to the Romans.[110][111]
From the surface of Mars, the motions of Phobos and Deimos appear very different from that of our own moon. Phobos rises in the west, sets in the east, and rises again in just 11 hours. Deimos, being only just outside synchronous orbit—where the orbital period would match the planet's period of rotation—rises as expected in the east but very slowly. Despite the 30 hour orbit of Deimos, it takes 2.7 days to set in the west as it slowly falls behind the rotation of Mars, then just as long again to rise.[112]
Because the orbit of Phobos is below synchronous altitude, the tidal forces from the planet Mars are gradually lowering its orbit. In about 50 million years it will either crash into Mars’ surface or break up into a ring structure around the planet.[112]
The origin of the two moons is not well understood. Their low albedo and carbonaceous chondrite composition are similar to asteroids and capture remains the favored theory. The unstable orbit of Phobos would seem to point towards a relatively recent capture. But both have circular orbits, very near the equator, which is very unusual for captured objects and the required capture dynamics are complex. Accretion early in the history of Mars is also plausible but does not account for the moons' composition resembling asteroids rather than Mars itself. A third possibility is the involvement of a third body or some kind of impact disruption.[113]
Life
Main article: Life on Mars
The current understanding of planetary habitability—the ability of a world to develop and sustain life—favors planets that have liquid water on their surface. This most often requires that the orbit of a planet lie within the habitable zone, which for the Sun currently extends from just beyond Venus to about the semi-major axis of Mars.[114] During perihelion Mars dips inside this region, but the planet's thin (low-pressure) atmosphere prevents liquid water from existing over large regions for extended periods. The past flow of liquid water, however, demonstrates the planet's potential for habitability. Recent evidence has suggested that any water on the Martian surface would have been too salty and acidic to support terrestrial life.[115]
The lack of a magnetosphere and extremely thin atmosphere of Mars are a greater challenge: the planet has little heat transfer across its surface, poor insulation against bombardment and the solar wind, and insufficient atmospheric pressure to retain water in a liquid form (water instead sublimates to a gaseous state). Mars is also nearly, or perhaps totally, geologically dead; the end of volcanic activity has stopped the recycling of chemicals and minerals between the surface and interior of the planet.[116]
Evidence suggests that the planet was once significantly more habitable than it is today, but whether living organisms ever existed there is still unclear. The Viking probes of the mid-1970s carried experiments designed to detect microorganisms in Martian soil at their respective landing sites, and had some apparently positive results, including a temporary increase of CO2 production on exposure to water and nutrients. However this sign of life was later disputed by many scientists, resulting in a continuing debate, with NASA scientist Gilbert Levin asserting that Viking may have found life. A re-analysis of the now 30-year-old Viking data, in light of modern knowledge of extremophile forms of life, has suggested that the Viking tests were also not sophisticated enough to detect these forms of life. The tests may even have killed a (hypothetical) life form.[117] Tests conducted by the Phoenix Mars lander have shown that the soil has a very alkaline pH and it contains magnesium, sodium, potassium and chloride.[118] The soil nutrients may be able to support life, but life would still have to be shielded from the intense ultraviolet light.[119]
At the Johnson space center lab, some curious shapes have been found in the Martian meteorite ALH84001. Some scientists propose that these geometric shapes could be fossilized microbes extant on Mars before the meteorite was blasted into space by a meteor strike and sent on a 15 million-year voyage to Earth. However, an exclusively inorganic origin for the shapes has also been proposed.[120]
Small quantities of methane and formaldehyde recently detected by Mars orbiters are both claimed to be hints for life, as these chemical compounds would quickly break down in the Martian atmosphere.[121][122] It is possible that these compounds may instead be replenished by volcanic or geological means such as serpentinization.[100]
Exploration
Mars 3 Lander (stamp, 1972)
Viking Lander 1 site
Main article: Exploration of Mars
Dozens of spacecraft, including orbiters, landers, and rovers, have been sent to Mars by the Soviet Union, the United States, Europe, and Japan to study the planet's surface, climate, and geology. The current price of transporting material from the surface of Earth to the surface of Mars is approximately US$309,000 per kilogram.[123]
Roughly two-thirds of all spacecraft destined for Mars have failed in one manner or another before completing or even beginning their missions. While this high failure rate can be ascribed to technical problems, enough have either failed or lost communications for causes unknown for some to search for other explanations. Examples include an Earth-Mars "Bermuda Triangle", a Mars Curse, or even the long-standing NASA in-joke, the "Great Galactic Ghoul" that feeds on Martian spacecraft.[124]
Past missions
The first successful fly-by mission to Mars was NASA's Mariner 4, launched in 1964. On November 14, 1971 Mariner 9 became the first space probe to orbit another planet when it entered into orbit around Mars.[125] The first successful objects to land on the surface were two Soviet probes, Mars 2 and Mars 3 from the Mars probe program, launched in 1971, but both lost contact within seconds of landing. Then came the 1975 NASA launches of the Viking program, which consisted of two orbiters, each having a lander; both landers successfully touched down in 1976. Viking 1 remained operational for six years, Viking 2 for three. The Viking landers relayed color panoramas of Mars[126] and the orbiters mapped the surface so well that the images remain in use.
The Soviet probes Phobos 1 and 2 were sent to Mars in 1988 to study Mars and its two moons. Phobos 1 lost contact on the way to Mars. Phobos 2, while successfully photographing Mars and Phobos, failed just before it was set to release two landers to the surface of Phobos.[127]
Following the 1992 failure of the Mars Observer orbiter, NASA launched the Mars Global Surveyor in 1996. This mission was a complete success, having finished its primary mapping mission in early 2001. Contact was lost with the probe in November 2006 during its third extended program, spending exactly 10 operational years in space. Only a month after the launch of the Surveyor, NASA launched the Mars Pathfinder, carrying a robotic exploration vehicle Sojourner, which landed in the Ares Vallis on Mars in the summer of 1997. This mission was also successful, and received much publicity, partially due to the many images that were sent back to Earth.[128]
The most recent mission to Mars was the NASA Phoenix Mars lander, which launched August 4, 2007 and arrived on the north polar region of Mars on May 25, 2008.[129] The lander has a robotic arm with a 2.5 m reach and capable of digging a metre into the Martian soil. The lander has a microscopic camera capable of resolving to one-thousandth the width of a human hair, and discovered a substance at its landing site on June 15, 2008, which was confirmed to be water ice on June 20.[130][131] The mission was declared concluded on November 10, 2008, after engineers were unable to contact the craft.[132]
Current missions
Spirit's lander on Mars
View from the Phoenix lander.
In 2001 NASA launched the successful Mars Odyssey orbiter, which is still in orbit as of December 2009, and the ending date has been extended to September 2010.[133] Odyssey's Gamma Ray Spectrometer detected significant amounts of hydrogen in the upper metre or so of regolith on Mars. This hydrogen is thought to be contained in large deposits of water ice.[134]
In 2003, the European Space Agency (ESA) launched the Mars Express craft, consisting of the Mars Express Orbiter and the lander Beagle 2. Beagle 2 failed during descent and was declared lost in early February 2004.[135] In early 2004 the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer team announced it had detected methane in the Martian atmosphere. ESA announced in June 2006 the discovery of aurorae on Mars.[136]
Also in 2003, NASA launched the twin Mars Exploration Rovers named Spirit (MER-A) and Opportunity (MER-B). Both missions landed successfully in January 2004 and have met or exceeded all their targets. Among the most significant scientific returns has been conclusive evidence that liquid water existed at some time in the past at both landing sites. Martian dust devils and windstorms have occasionally cleaned both rovers' solar panels, and thus increased their lifespan.[137]
On August 12, 2005 the NASA Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter probe was launched toward the planet, arriving in orbit on March 10, 2006 to conduct a two-year science survey. The orbiter will map the Martian terrain and weather to find suitable landing sites for upcoming lander missions. It also contains an improved telecommunications link to Earth, with more bandwidth than all previous missions combined. The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter snapped the first image of a series of active avalanches near the planet's north pole, scientists said March 3, 2008.[138]
The Dawn spacecraft flew by Mars in February 2009 for a gravity assist on its way to investigate Vesta and then Ceres.[139]
Future missions
Phoenix will be followed by the Mars Science Laboratory in 2011, a bigger, faster (90 m/h), and smarter version of the Mars Exploration Rovers. Experiments include a laser chemical sampler that can deduce the make-up of rocks at a distance of 13 m.[140]
The joint Russian and Chinese Phobos-Grunt mission to return samples of the Martian moon, Phobos, (grunt is the Russian word for soil) was originally scheduled for October 2009, but the mission was postponed till the next launch window in 2011. On September 15, 2008, NASA announced MAVEN, a robotic mission in 2013 to provide information about the atmosphere of Mars.[141] In 2018 the ESA plans to launch its first Rover to Mars; the ExoMars rover will be capable of drilling 2 m into the soil in search of organic molecules.[142]
The Finnish-Russian MetNet mission will land tens of small vehicles on the Martian surface to establish a widespread surface observation network to investigate the planet's atmospheric structure, physics and meteorology.[143] A precursor mission using one or a few landers is scheduled for launch in 2009 or 2011.[144] One possibility is a piggyback launch on the Russian Phobos-Grunt mission.[144]
Manned Mars exploration by the United States has been explicitly identified as a long-term goal in the Vision for Space Exploration announced in 2004 by the then US President George W. Bush.[145] NASA and Lockheed Martin have begun work on the Orion spacecraft, formerly the Crew Exploration Vehicle, which is currently scheduled to send a human expedition to Earth's moon by 2020 as a stepping stone to an expedition to Mars thereafter. On September 28, 2007, NASA administrator Michael D. Griffin stated that NASA aims to put a man on Mars by 2037.[146]
ESA hopes to land humans on Mars between 2030 and 2035.[147] This will be preceded by successively larger probes, starting with the launch of the ExoMars probe[148] and a joint NASA-ESA Mars sample return mission.[149]
Mars Direct, an extremely low-cost human mission proposed by Bob Zubrin, a founder of the Mars Society, uses heavy-lift Saturn V class rockets, such as the Space X Falcon 9, or, the Ares V, to skip orbital construction, LEO rendezvous, and lunar fuel depots. A modified proposal, called "Mars to Stay",[150] involves not returning the first immigrant/explorers immediately, if ever. Dean Unick has suggested the cost of sending a four to six person team is one fifth to one tenth the cost of returning that same four to six person team; twenty settlers could be sent for the cost of returning four.[151]
Astronomy on Mars
Photograph of a Martian sunset taken by Spirit at Gusev crater, May 19, 2005.
Main article: Astronomy on Mars
With the existence of various orbiters, landers, and rovers, it is now possible to study astronomy from the Martian skies. While Mars’ moon Phobos appears about one third the angular diameter of the full Moon as it appears from Earth, Deimos appears more or less star-like, and appears only slightly brighter than Venus does from Earth.[152]
There are also various phenomena well-known on Earth that have now been observed on Mars, such as meteors and auroras.[136] A transit of the Earth as seen from Mars will occur on November 10, 2084.[153] There are also transits of Mercury and transits of Venus, and the moons Phobos and Deimos are of sufficiently small angular diameter that their partial "eclipses" of the Sun are best considered transits (see Transit of Deimos from Mars).[154][155]
Viewing
Apparent retrograde motion of Mars in 2003 as seen from Earth
Mars oppositions from 2003–2018, viewed from above the ecliptic with the Earth centered
To the naked eye, Mars usually appears a distinct yellow, orange, or reddish color, and varies in brightness more than any other planet as seen from Earth over the course of its orbit. However the actual color of Mars is closer to butterscotch, and the redness seen is actually just dust in the planet's atmosphere; considering this NASA's Spirit rover has taken pictures of a greenish-brown, mud-colored landscape with blue-grey rocks and patches of light red colored sand.[156] The apparent magnitude of Mars varies from +1.8 at conjunction to as high as −2.91 at perihelic opposition.[5] When farthest away from the Earth, it is more than seven times as far from the latter as when it is closest. When least favorably positioned, it can be lost in the Sun's glare for months at a time. At its most favorable times—at 15- or 17-year intervals, and always between late July and late September—Mars shows a wealth of surface detail to a telescope. Especially noticeable, even at low magnification, are the polar ice caps.[157] middle of this motion.[158]
Closest approaches
Relative
The point of Mars’ closest approach to the Earth is known as opposition. The length of time between successive oppositions, or the synodic period, is 780 days. Because of the eccentricities of the orbits, the times of opposition and minimum distance can differ by up to 8.5 days. The minimum distance varies between about 55 and 100 million km due to the elliptical orbits of the planets,[5] which causes comparable variation in angular size.[159] The last Mars opposition occurred on January 29, 2010. The next one will occur on March 3, 2012.[160]
As Mars approaches opposition it begins a period of retrograde motion, which makes it appear to move backwards in a looping motion relative to the background stars. The duration of this retrograde motion is about 72 days.
Absolute, around the present time
Mars made its closest approach to Earth and maximum apparent brightness in nearly 60,000 years, 55,758,006 km (0.372719 AU), magnitude -2.9, on 27 August 2003 at 9:51:13 UT. This occurred when Mars was one day from opposition and about three days from its perihelion, making Mars particularly easy to see from Earth. The last time it came so close is estimated to have been on September 12, 57 617 BC, the next time being in 2287.[161] However, this record approach was only very slightly closer than other recent close approaches. For instance, the minimum distance on August 22, 1924 was 0.37285 AU, and the minimum distance on August 24, 2208 will be 0.37279 AU.[107]
A valid email sent in 2003 has spawned hoax emails in later years saying that Mars will soon (usually 27 August of the current year) make its closest approach for thousands of years (as indeed happened in 2003), and will look as big as the Moon (nonsense).[162]
Historical observations
Main article: History of Mars observation
The history of observations of Mars is marked by the oppositions of Mars, when the planet is closest to Earth and hence is most easily visible, which occur every couple of years. Even more notable are the perihelic oppositions of Mars which occur every 15 or 17 years, and are distinguished because Mars is close to perihelion, making it even closer to Earth.
The existence of Mars as a wandering object in the night sky was recorded by the ancient Egyptian astronomers and by 1534 BCE they were familiar with the retrograde motion of the planet.[163] By the period of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the Babylonian astronomers were making regular records of the positions of the planets and systematic observations of their behavior. For Mars, they knew that the planet made 37 circuits of the Sun every 79 years. They also invented arithmetic methods for making minor corrections to the predicted positions of the planets.[164][165]
Literature from ancient China confirms that Mars was known by Chinese astronomers by no later than the fourth century BCE.[166] In the third century BCE, Aristotle noted that Mars disappeared behind the Moon during an occultation, indicating the planet was farther away.[167] In the fifth century CE, the Indian astronomical text Surya Siddhanta estimated the diameter of Mars.[168] In the eight century, the Islamic astronomer, Yaqūb ibn Tāriq, attempted to estimate the distance between the Earth and Mars in his Az-Zīj al-Mahlul min as-Sindhind li-Darajat Daraja.[169]
During the seventeenth century, Tycho Brahe measured the diurnal parallax of Mars that Kepler used to make a preliminary calculation of the relative distance to the planet.[170] When the telescope became available, the diurnal parallax of Mars was again measured in an effort to determine the Sun-Earth distance. This was first performed by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1672. However, the early parallax measurements were hampered by the quality of the instruments.[171] The only occultation of Mars by Venus observed was that of October 13, 1590, seen by Michael Maestlin at Heidelberg.[172] In 1610, Mars was viewed by Galileo, who was first to see it via telescope.[173]
Martian 'canals'
Map of Mars by Giovanni Schiaparelli
Mars sketched as observed by Lowell sometime before 1914. (South top)
Map of Mars from Hubble Space Telescope as seen near the 1999 opposition. (North top)
Main article: Martian canal
By the 19th century, the resolution of telescopes reached a level sufficient for surface features to be identified. In September 1877, a perihelic opposition of Mars occurred on September 5. In that year, Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli used a 22 cm telescope in Milan to help produce the first detailed map of Mars. These maps notably contained features he called canali, which were later shown to be an optical illusion. These canali were supposedly long straight lines on the surface of Mars to which he gave names of famous rivers on Earth. His term, which means 'channels' or 'grooves', was popularly mistranslated in English as canals.[174][175]
Influenced by the observations, the orientalist Percival Lowell founded an observatory which had a 300 and 450 mm telescope. The observatory was used for the exploration of Mars during the last good opportunity in 1894 and the following less favorable oppositions. He published several books on Mars and life on the planet, which had a great influence on the public.[176] The canali were also found by other astronomers, like Henri Joseph Perrotin and Louis Thollon in Nice, using one of the largest telescopes of that time.[177][178]
The seasonal changes (consisting of the diminishing of the polar caps and the dark areas formed during Martian summer) in combination with the canals lead to speculation about life on Mars, and it was a long held belief that Mars contained vast seas and vegetation. The telescope never reached the resolution required to give proof to any speculations. However, as bigger telescopes were used, fewer long, straight canali were observed. During an observation in 1909 by Flammarion with a 840 mm telescope, irregular patterns were observed, but no canali were seen.[179]
Even in the 1960s articles were published on Martian biology, putting aside explanations other than life for the seasonal changes on Mars. Detailed scenarios for the metabolism and chemical cycles for a functional ecosystem have been published.[180]
It was not until spacecraft visited the planet during NASA's Mariner missions in the 1960s that these myths were dispelled. The results of the Viking life-detection experiments started an intermission in which the hypothesis of a hostile, dead planet was generally accepted.[181]
Some maps of Mars were made using the data from these missions, but it was not until the Mars Global Surveyor mission, launched in 1996 and operated until late 2006, that complete, extremely detailed maps of the martian topography, magnetic field and surface minerals were obtained.[182] These maps are now available online, for example, at Google Mars.
In culture
Main article: Mars in history
Mars is named after the Roman god of war. In different cultures, Mars represents masculinity and youth. Its symbol, a circle with an arrow pointing out to the upper right, is also used as a symbol for the male gender.
Intelligent "Martians"
An 1893 soap ad playing on the popular idea that Mars was populated.
Main article: Mars in fiction
The popular idea that Mars was populated by intelligent Martians exploded in the late 19th century. Schiaparelli's "canali" observations combined with Percival Lowell's books on the subject put forward the standard notion of a planet that was a drying, cooling, dying world with ancient civilizations constructing irrigation works.[183]
Many other observations and proclamations by notable personalities added to what has been termed "Mars Fever".[184] In 1899 while investigating atmospheric radio noise using his receivers in his Colorado Springs lab, inventor Nikola Tesla observed repetitive signals that he later surmised might have been radio communications coming from another planet, possibly Mars. In a 1901 interview Tesla said:
It was some time afterward when the thought flashed upon my mind that the disturbances I had observed might be due to an intelligent control. Although I could not decipher their meaning, it was impossible for me to think of them as having been entirely accidental. The feeling is constantly growing on me that I had been the first to hear the greeting of one planet to another.[185]
Tesla's theories gained support from Lord Kelvin who, while visiting the United States in 1902, was reported to have said that he thought Tesla had picked up Martian signals being sent to the United States.[186] However, Kelvin "emphatically" denied this report shortly before departing America: "What I really said was that the inhabitants of Mars, if there are any, were doubtless able to see New York, particularly the glare of the electricity."[187]
In a New York Times article in 1901, Edward Charles Pickering, director of the Harvard College Observatory, said that they had received a telegram from Lowell Observatory in Arizona that seemed to confirm that Mars was trying to communicate with the Earth.[188]
Early in December 1900, we received from Lowell Observatory in Arizona a telegram that a shaft of light had been seen to project from Mars (the Lowell observatory makes a specialty of Mars) lasting seventy minutes. I wired these facts to Europe and sent out neostyle copies through this country. The observer there is a careful, reliable man and there is no reason to doubt that the light existed. It was given as from a well-known geographical point on Mars. That was all. Now the story has gone the world over. In Europe it is stated that I have been in communication with Mars, and all sorts of exaggerations have spring up. Whatever the light was, we have no means of knowing. Whether it had intelligence or not, no one can say. It is absolutely inexplicable.[188]
Pickering later proposed creating a set of mirrors in Texas with the intention of signaling Martians.[189]
In recent decades, the high resolution mapping of the surface of Mars, culminating in Mars Global Surveyor, revealed no artifacts of habitation by 'intelligent' life, but pseudoscientific speculation about intelligent life on Mars continues from commentators such as Richard C. Hoagland. Reminiscent of the canali controversy, some speculations are based on small scale features perceived in the spacecraft images, such as 'pyramids' and the 'Face on Mars'. Planetary astronomer Carl Sagan wrote:
Mars has become a kind of mythic arena onto which we have projected our Earthly hopes and fears.[175]
Alien tripod illustration from the 1906 French edition of The War of the Worlds by H.G. Wells.
The depiction of Mars in fiction has been stimulated by its dramatic red color and by nineteenth century scientific speculations that its surface conditions not only might support life, but intelligent life.[190] Thus originated a large number of science fiction scenarios, among which is H. G. Wells' The War of the Worlds, published in 1898, in which Martians seek to escape their dying planet by invading Earth. A subsequent US radio adaptation of The War of the Worlds on October 30, 1938 by Orson Welles was presented as a live news broadcast, and became notorious for causing a public panic when many listeners mistook it for the truth.[191]
Influential works included Ray Bradbury's The Martian Chronicles, in which human explorers accidentally destroy a Martian civilization, Edgar Rice Burroughs' Barsoom series, C. S. Lewis' book Out of the Silent Planet (1938),[192] the Mars trilogy of Kim Stanley Robinson and a number of Robert A. Heinlein stories before the mid-sixties.[193]
Author Jonathan Swift made reference to the moons of Mars, about 150 years before their actual discovery by Asaph Hall, detailing reasonably accurate descriptions of their orbits, in the 19th chapter of his novel Gulliver's Travels.[194]
A comic figure of an intelligent Martian, Marvin the Martian, appeared on television in 1948 as a character in the Looney Tunes animated cartoons of Warner Brothers, and has continued as part of popular culture to the present.[195]
After the Mariner and Viking spacecraft had returned pictures of Mars as it really is, an apparently lifeless and canal-less world, these ideas about Mars had to be abandoned and a vogue for accurate, realist depictions of human colonies on Mars developed, the best known of which may be Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars trilogy. However, pseudo-scientific speculations about the Face on Mars and other enigmatic landmarks spotted by space probes have meant that ancient civilizations continue to be a popular theme in science fiction, especially in film.[196]
The theme of a Martian colony that fights for independence from Earth is a major plot element in the novels of Greg Bear and Kim Stanley Robinson, as well as the movie Total Recall (based on a short story by Philip K. Dick) and the television series Babylon 5. Some video games also use this element, including Red Faction and the Zone of the Enders series. Mars (and its moons) were also the setting for the popular Doom video game franchise and the later Martian Gothic.
See also
Mars portal
Solar System portal
Book:Solar System
Notes
1. ^ Best fit ellipsoid
2. ^ There are many serpentinization reactions. Olivine is a solid solution between forsterite and fayalite whose general formula is (Fe,Mg)2SiO4. The reaction producing methane from olivine can be written as: Forsterite + Fayalite + Water + Carbonic acid → Serpentine + Magnetite + Methane , or (in balanced form): 18Mg2SiO4 + 6Fe2SiO4 + 26H2O + CO2 → 12Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 + 4Fe3O4 + CH4
References
1. ^ Yeomans, Donald K. (2006-07-13). "HORIZONS System". NASA JPL. http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?horizons. Retrieved 2007-08-08. —At the site, go to the "web interface" then select "Ephemeris Type: ELEMENTS", "Target Body: Mars" and "Center: Sun".
2. ^ "The MeanPlane (Invariable plane) of the Solar System passing through the barycenter". 2009-04-03. http://home.comcast.net/~kpheider/MeanPlane.gif. Retrieved 2009-04-10. (produced with Solex 10 written by Aldo Vitagliano; see also invariable plane)
3. ^ a b Seidelmann, P. Kenneth; Archinal, B. A.; A'hearn, M. F.; et al. (2007). "Report of the IAU/IAG Working Group on cartographic coordinates and rotational elements: 2006". Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy 98 (3): 155–180. doi:10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y. Retrieved 2007-08-28.
4. ^ a b c d e Lodders, Katharina; Fegley, Bruce (1998). The planetary scientist's companion. Oxford University Press US. p. 190. ISBN 0195116941.
5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Williams, David R. (September 1, 2004). "Mars Fact Sheet". National Space Science Data Center. NASA. http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/marsfact.html. Retrieved 2006-06-24.
6. ^ Harvey, Samantha (May 27, 2008). "Mars: Facts & Figures". Solar System Exploration. NASA. http://solarsystem.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mars&Display=Facts&System=Metric. Retrieved 2007-03-06.
7. ^ a b Barlow, Nadine G. (2008). Mars: an introduction to its interior, surface and atmosphere. Cambridge planetary science. 8. Cambridge University Press. p. 21. ISBN 0521852269.
8. ^ Krasnopolsky, Vladimir A.; Feldman, Paul D. (November 2001). "Detection of Molecular Hydrogen in the Atmosphere of Mars". Science 294 (5548): 1914–1917. doi:10.1126/science.1065569. PMID 11729314. Bibcode: 2001Sci...294.1914K.
9. ^ Clancy, R. T.; Sandor, B. J.; Moriarty-Schieven, G. H. (March 2004). "A measurement of the 362 GHz absorption line of Mars atmospheric H2O2". Icarus 168 (1): 116–121. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2003.12.003. Bibcode: 2004Icar..168..116C.
10. ^ a b Formisano, V.; Atreya, S.; Encrenaz, T.; Ignatiev, N.; Giuranna, M. (2004). "Detection of Methane in the Atmosphere of Mars". Science 306: 1758–1761. doi:10.1126/science.1101732. PMID 15514118.
11. ^ "The Lure of Hematite". Science@NASA. NASA. March 28, 2001. http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast28mar_1.htm. Retrieved 2009-12-24.
12. ^ a b c Yeager, Ashley (July 19, 2008). "Impact May Have Transformed Mars". ScienceNews.org. http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/33622/title/Impact_may_have_transformed_Mars_. Retrieved 2008-08-12.
13. ^ a b c Sample, Ian (June 26, 2008). "Cataclysmic impact created north-south divide on Mars". London: Science @ guardian.co.uk. http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2008/jun/26/mars.asteroid?gusrc=rss&feed=science. Retrieved 2008-08-12.
14. ^ Bell, Trudy E.; Phillips, Tony (March 12, 2002). "Once Upon a Water Planet". Science @ NASA. http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2002/12mar%5Fwaterplanet.htm. Retrieved 2008-06-21.
15. ^ "NASA Images Suggest Water Still Flows in Brief Spurts on Mars". NASA/JPL. December 6, 2006. http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mars/news/mgs-20061206.html. Retrieved 2007-01-04.
16. ^ a b "Water ice in crater at Martian north pole". ESA. July 28, 2005. http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Mars_Express/SEMGKA808BE_0.html. Retrieved 2010-03-19.
17. ^ a b "Scientists Discover Concealed Glaciers on Mars at Mid-Latitudes". University of Texas at Austin. November 20, 2008. http://www.jsg.utexas.edu/news/rels/112008.html. Retrieved 2010-03-19.
18. ^ Staff (February 21, 2005). "Mars pictures reveal frozen sea". ESA. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4285119.stm. Retrieved 2010-03-19.
19. ^ a b "NASA Spacecraft Confirms Martian Water, Mission Extended". Science @ NASA. July 31, 2008. http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/phoenix/news/phoenix-20080731.html. Retrieved 2008-08-01.
20. ^ Webster, G.; Beasley, D. (September 20, 2005). "Orbiter's Long Life Helps Scientists Track Changes on Mars". NASA. http://mpfwww.jpl.nasa.gov/mgs/newsroom/20050920a.html. Retrieved 2007-02-26.
21. ^ Peplow, Mark. "How Mars got its rust". BioEd Online. MacMillan Publishers Ltd.. http://www.bioedonline.org/news/news-print.cfm?art=953. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
22. ^ Christensen, Philip R.; et al. (2003-06-27). "Morphology and Composition of the Surface of Mars: Mars Odyssey THEMIS Results". Science 300 (5628): 2056–2061. doi:10.1126/science.1080885. PMID 12791998.
23. ^ Golombek, Matthew P. (2003-06-27). "The Surface of Mars: Not Just Dust and Rocks". Science 300 (5628): 2043–2044. doi:10.1126/science.1082927. PMID 12829771.
24. ^ Valentine, Theresa; Amde, Lishan (2006-11-09). "Magnetic Fields and Mars". Mars Global Surveyor @ NASA. http://mgs-mager.gsfc.nasa.gov/Kids/magfield.html. Retrieved 2009-07-17.
25. ^ "New Map Provides More Evidence Mars Once Like Earth". NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center. http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2005/mgs_plates.html. Retrieved 2006-03-17.
26. ^ Jacqué, Dave (2003-09-26). "APS X-rays reveal secrets of Mars' core". Argonne National Laboratory. http://www.anl.gov/Media_Center/News/2003/030926mars.htm. Retrieved 2006-07-01.
27. ^ Halliday, A. N.; Wänke, H.; Birck, J.-L.; Clayton, R. N. (2001). "The Accretion, Composition and Early Differentiation of Mars". Space Science Reviews 96 (1/4): 197–230. doi:10.1023/A:1011997206080. Bibcode: 2001SSRv...96..197H.
28. ^ Zharkov, V. N. (1993). The role of Jupiter in the formation of planets. pp. 7–17. Bibcode: 1993GMS....74....7Z.
29. ^ Lunine, Jonathan I.; Chambers, John; Morbidelli, Alessandro; Leshin, Laurie A. (September 2003). "The origin of water on Mars". Icarus 165 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1016/S0019-1035(03)00172-6. Bibcode: 2003Icar..165....1L.
30. ^ Barlow, N. G. (October 5–7, 1988). "Conditions on Early Mars: Constraints from the Cratering Record". in H. Frey. MEVTV Workshop on Early Tectonic and Volcanic Evolution of Mars. LPI Technical Report 89-04. Easton, Maryland: Lunar and Planetary Institute. p. 15. Bibcode: 1989eamd.work...15B.
31. ^ "Giant Asteroid Flattened Half of Mars, Studies Suggest". Scientific American. http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=giant-asteroid-flattened. Retrieved 2008-06-27.
32. ^ Chang, Kenneth (2008-06-26). "Huge Meteor Strike Explains Mars’s Shape, Reports Say". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/26/science/space/26mars.html?em&ex=1214712000&en=bd0be05a87523855&ei=5087%0A. Retrieved 2008-06-27.
33. ^ Tanaka, K. L. (1986). "The Stratigraphy of Mars". Journal of Geophysical Research 91 (B13): E139–E158. doi:10.1029/JB091iB13p0E139.
34. ^ Hartmann, William K.; Neukum, Gerhard (April 2001). "Cratering Chronology and the Evolution of Mars". Space Science Reviews 96 (1/4): 165–194. doi:10.1023/A:1011945222010. Bibcode: 2001SSRv...96..165H.
35. ^ Mitchell, Karl L.; Wilson, Lionel (August 2003). "Mars: recent geological activity : Mars: a geologically active planet". Astronomy & Geophysics 44 (4): 4.16–4.20. doi:10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.44416.x. Bibcode: 2003A&G....44d..16M.
36. ^ "Mars avalanche caught on camera". Discovery Channel. Discovery Communications. 2008-03-04. http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/03/04/mars-avalanche.html. Retrieved 2009-03-04.
37. ^ "Martian soil 'could support life'". BBC News. June 27, 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7477310.stm. Retrieved 2008-08-07.
38. ^ Chang, Alicia (2008-08-05). "Scientists: Salt in Mars soil not bad for life". Associated Press. http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/space/2008-08-04-mars-soil_N.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-07.
39. ^ "NASA Spacecraft Analyzing Martian Soil Data". JPL. http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/phoenix/release.php?ArticleID=1816. Retrieved 2008-08-05.
40. ^ "Dust Devil Etch-A-Sketch (ESP_013751_1115)". NASA/JPL/University of Arizona. 2009-07-02. http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/ESP_013751_1115. Retrieved 2010-01-01.
41. ^ "Dark Streaks on Mars Suggest Running Water Still Present". SPACE.com. 2002-12-11. http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/streaks_mars_021211.html. Retrieved 2009-09-20.
42. ^ a b "NASA, Mars: Facts & Figures". http://solarsystem.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mars&Display=Facts. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
43. ^ Heldmann, Jennifer L.; et al. (2005-05-07). "Formation of Martian gullies by the action of liquid water flowing under current Martian environmental conditions" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research 110: Eo5004. doi:10.1029/2004JE002261. http://daleandersen.seti.org/Dale_Andersen/Science_articles_files/Heldmann%20et%20al.2005.pdf. Retrieved 2008-09-17. 'conditions such as now occur on Mars, outside of the temperature-pressure stability regime of liquid water' ... 'Liquid water is typically stable at the lowest elevations and at low latitudes on the planet because the atmospheric pressure is greater than the vapor pressure of water and surface temperatures in equatorial regions can reach 273 K for parts of the day [Haberle et al., 2001]'
44. ^ a b Kostama, V.-P.; Kreslavsky, M. A.; Head, J. W. (June 3, 2006). "Recent high-latitude icy mantle in the northern plains of Mars: Characteristics and ages of emplacement". Geophysical Research Letters 33: L11201. doi:10.1029/2006GL025946. http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2006/2006GL025946.shtml. Retrieved 2007-08-12. 'Martian high-latitude zones are covered with a smooth, layered ice-rich mantle'.
45. ^ Byrne, Shane; Ingersoll, Andrew P. (2003). "A Sublimation Model for Martian South Polar Ice Features". Science 299 (5609): 1051–1053. doi:10.1126/science.1080148. PMID 12586939.
46. ^ "Mars' South Pole Ice Deep and Wide". NASA. March 15, 2007. http://jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2007-030. Retrieved 2007-03-16.
47. ^ Whitehouse, David (January 24, 2004). "Long history of water and Mars". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3426539.stm. Retrieved 2010-03-20.
48. ^ Murray, John B.; et al. (March 17, 2005). "Evidence from the Mars Express High Resolution Stereo Camera for a frozen sea close to Mars' equator". Nature 434 (703): 352–356. doi:10.1038/nature03379. PMID 15772653.
49. ^ Kerr, Richard A. (March 4, 2005). "Ice or Lava Sea on Mars? A Transatlantic Debate Erupts". Science 307 (5714): 1390–1391. doi:10.1126/science.307.5714.1390a. PMID 15746395.
50. ^ a b Jaeger, W. L.; et al. (September 21, 2007). "Athabasca Valles, Mars: A Lava-Draped Channel System". Science 317 (5845): 1709–1711. doi:10.1126/science.1143315. PMID 17885126.
51. ^ Boynton, W. V.; et al. (in press). "Concentration of H, Si, Cl, K, Fe, and Th in the low and mid latitude regions of Mars". Journal of Geophysical Research, Planets 112: E12S99. doi:10.1029/2007JE002887.
52. ^ Feldman, W. C.; et al. (November 30, 2005). "Topgraphic control of hydrogen deposits at low latitudes to midlatitudes of Mars". Journal of Geophysical Research 110: E11009. doi:10.1029/2005JE002452. 11009.
53. ^ Malin, Michael C.; Edgett, KS (June 30, 2000). "Evidence for Recent Groundwater Seepage and Surface Runoff on Mars". Science 288 (5475): 2330–2335. doi:10.1126/science.288.5475.2330. PMID 10875910.
54. ^ "NASA Images Suggest Water Still Flows in Brief Spurts on Mars". NASA. December 6, 2006. http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mars/news/mgs-20061206.html. Retrieved 2006-12-06.
55. ^ "Water flowed recently on Mars". BBC. December 6, 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/6214834.stm. Retrieved 2006-12-06.
56. ^ "Water May Still Flow on Mars, NASA Photo Suggests". NASA. December 6, 2006. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6587226. Retrieved 2006-04-30.
57. ^ NASA (March 3, 2004). "Mineral in Mars 'Berries' Adds to Water Story". Press release. Archived from the original on 2007-11-09. http://web.archive.org/web/20071109185031/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/releases/2004/88.cfm. Retrieved 2006-06-13.
58. ^ McEwen, A. S.; et al. (September 21, 2007). "A Closer Look at Water-Related Geologic Activity on Mars". Science 317 (5845): 1706–1709. doi:10.1126/science.1143987. PMID 17885125.
59. ^ "Mars Exploration Rover Mission: Science". NASA. 2007-07-12. http://marsrover.nasa.gov/science/goal1-results.html. Retrieved 2010-01-10.
60. ^ Mellon, J. T.; Feldman, W. C.; Prettyman, T. H. (2003). "The presence and stability of ground ice in the southern hemisphere of Mars". Icarus 169 (2): 324–340. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2003.10.022. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004Icar..169..324M. Retrieved 2007-02-26.
61. ^ "Mars Rovers Spot Water-Clue Mineral, Frost, Clouds". NASA. December 13, 2004. http://marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/press/opportunity/20041213a.html. Retrieved 2006-03-17.
62. ^ Darling, David. "Mars, polar caps". Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight. http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/M/Marspoles.html. Retrieved 2007-02-26.
63. ^ "MIRA's Field Trips to the Stars Internet Education Program". Mira.or. http://www.mira.org/fts0/planets/097/text/txt002x.htm. Retrieved 2007-02-26.
64. ^ Carr, Michael H. (2003). "Oceans on Mars: An assessment of the observational evidence and possible fate". Journal of Geophysical Research 108 (5042): 24. doi:10.1029/2002JE001963. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998RPPh...61...77K. Retrieved 2007-02-26.
65. ^ Phillips, Tony. "Mars is Melting, Science at NASA". http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2003/07aug_southpole.htm. Retrieved 2007-02-26.
66. ^ Plaut, J. J; et al. (2007). "Subsurface Radar Sounding of the South Polar Layered Deposits of Mars". Science 315: 92. doi:10.1126/science.1139672. PMID 17363628.
67. ^ Pelletier, J. D. (2004). "How do spiral troughs form on Mars?". Geology 32: 365–367. doi:10.1130/G20228.2. http://www.gsajournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1130%2FG20228.2. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
68. ^ "Mars polar cap mystery solved". ESA. September 22, 2008. http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMO78Q4KKF_index_0.html. Retrieved 2009-12-24.
69. ^ "NASA Findings Suggest Jets Bursting From Martian Ice Cap". Jet Propulsion Laboratory (NASA). August 16, 2006. http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2006-100. Retrieved 2009-08-11.
70. ^ Kieffer, H. H. (2000). "Mars Polar Science 2000" (PDF). http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/polar2000/pdf/4095.pdf. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
71. ^ G. Portyankina, ed (2006). "Fourth Mars Polar Science Conference" (PDF). http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/polar2006/pdf/8040.pdf. Retrieved 2009-08-11.
72. ^ Kieffer, Hugh H.; Christensen, Philip R.; Titus, Timothy N. (May 30, 2006). "CO2 jets formed by sublimation beneath translucent slab ice in Mars' seasonal south polar ice cap". Nature 442 (7104): 793–796. doi:10.1038/nature04945. PMID 16915284. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v442/n7104/abs/nature04945.html. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
73. ^ Sheehan, William. "Areographers". The Planet Mars: A History of Observation and Discovery. http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/onlinebks/mars/chap04.htm. Retrieved 2006-06-13.
74. ^ "Viking and the Resources of Mars" (PDF). Humans to Mars: Fifty Years of Mission Planning, 1950–2000. http://history.nasa.gov/monograph21/Chapter%206.pdf. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
75. ^ Frommert, H.; Kronberg, C.. "Christiaan Huygens". SEDS/Lunar and Planetary Lab. http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/Bios/huygens.html. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
76. ^ Archinal, B. A.; Caplinger, M. (Fall 2002). "Mars, the Meridian, and Mert: The Quest for Martian Longitude". Abstract #P22D-06 (American Geophysical Union). Bibcode: 2002AGUFM.P22D..06A.
77. ^ Zeitler, W.; Ohlhof, T.; Ebner, H. (February 2000). "Recomputation of the global Mars control-point network". Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing 66 (2): 155–161. http://www.asprs.org/publications/pers/2000journal/february/2000_feb_155-161.pdf. Retrieved 2009-12-26.
78. ^ Lunine, Cynthia J. (1999). Earth: evolution of a habitable world. Cambridge University Press. p. 183. ISBN 0521644232.
79. ^ Wright, Shawn (April 4, 2003). "Infrared Analyses of Small Impact Craters on Earth and Mars". University of Pittsburgh. Archived from the original on June 12, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070612190405/http://ivis.eps.pitt.edu/projects/MC/. Retrieved 2007-02-26.
80. ^ "Mars Global Geography". Windows to the Universe. University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. April 27, 2001. http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/mars/interior/Martian_global_geology.html. Retrieved 2006-06-13.
81. ^ Wetherill, G. W. (1999). "Problems Associated with Estimating the Relative Impact Rates on Mars and the Moon". Earth, Moon, and Planets 9: 227. doi:10.1007/BF00565406. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974Moon....9..227W. Retrieved 2007-02-02.
82. ^ Costard, Francois M. (June 1989). "The spatial distribution of volatiles in the Martian hydrolithosphere". Earth, Moon, and Planets 45: 265–290. doi:10.1007/BF00057747. Bibcode: 1989EM&P...45..265C.
83. ^ Glenday, Craig (2009). Guinness World Records. Random House, Inc.. p. 12. ISBN 0553592564.
84. ^ Chen, Junyong; et al. (May 2006). "Progress in technology for the 2005 height determination of Qomolangma Feng (Mt. Everest)". Science in China Series D: Earth Sciences 49 (5): 531–538. doi:10.1007/s11430-006-0531-1.
85. ^ Lucchitta, B. K.; Rosanova, C. E. (August 26, 2003). "Valles Marineris; The Grand Canyon of Mars". USGS. http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/VallesMarineris/. Retrieved 2007-03-11.
86. ^ Cushing, G. E.; Titus, T. N.; Wynne, J. J.; Christensen, P. R. (2007). "Themis Observes Possible Cave Skylights on Mars" (PDF). Lunar and Planetary Science XXXVIII. http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2007/pdf/1371.pdf. Retrieved 2007-08-02.
87. ^ "NAU researchers find possible caves on Mars". Inside NAU (Northern Arizona University) 4 (12). March 28, 2007. http://www4.nau.edu/insidenau/bumps/2007/3_28_07/mars.htm. Retrieved 2007-05-28.
88. ^ "Researchers find possible caves on Mars". Paul Rincon of BBC News. 2007-03-17. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6461201.stm. Retrieved 2007-05-28.
89. ^ a b Philips, Tony (2001). "The Solar Wind at Mars". Science@NASA. http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast31jan_1.htm. Retrieved 2006-10-08.
90. ^ Lundin, R; et al. (2004). "Solar Wind-Induced Atmospheric Erosion at Mars: First Results from ASPERA-3 on Mars Express". Science 305 (5692): 1933–1936. doi:10.1126/science.1101860. PMID 15448263.
91. ^ Bolonkin, Alexander A. (2009). Artificial Environments on Mars. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 599–625. ISBN 9783642036293.
92. ^ Atkinson, Nancy (2007-07-17). "The Mars Landing Approach: Getting Large Payloads to the Surface of the Red Planet". http://www.universetoday.com/2007/07/17/the-mars-landing-approach-getting-large-payloads-to-the-surface-of-the-red-planet. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
93. ^ Carr, Michael H. (2006). The surface of Mars. 6. Cambridge University Press. p. 16. ISBN 0521872014.
94. ^ Lemmon, M. T.; et al. (2004). "Atmospheric Imaging Results from Mars Rovers". Science 306 (5702): 1753–1756. doi:10.1126/science.1104474. PMID 15576613.
95. ^ "Mars Express confirms methane in the Martian atmosphere". ESA. March 30, 2004. http://www.esa.int/esaMI/Mars_Express/SEMZ0B57ESD_0.html. Retrieved 2006-03-17.
96. ^ a b c d Mumma, Michael J.; et al. (February 20, 2009). "Strong Release of Methane on Mars in Northern Summer 2003". Science 323 (5917): 1041–1045. doi:10.1126/science.1165243. PMID 19150811. http://images.spaceref.com/news/2009/Mumma_et_al_Methane_Mars_wSOM_accepted2.pdf.
97. ^ Hand, Eric (October 21, 2008). "Plumes of methane identified on Mars". Nature News. http://esse.engin.umich.edu/psl/PRESS/Mars/NatureNews_2008.pdf. Retrieved 2009-08-02.
98. ^ Krasnopolsky, Vladimir A. (February 2005). "Some problems related to the origin of methane on Mars". Icarus 180 (2): 359–367. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2005.10.015.
99. ^ Franck, Lefèvre; Forget, François (August 6, 2009). "Observed variations of methane on Mars unexplained by known atmospheric chemistry and physics". Nature 460 (7256): 720–723. doi:10.1038/nature08228. PMID 19661912. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/abs/nature08228.html. Retrieved 2009-10-23.
100. ^ a b Oze, C.; Sharma, M. (2005). "Have olivine, will gas: Serpentinization and the abiogenic production of methane on Mars". Geophysical Research Letters 32: L10203. doi:10.1029/2005GL022691.
101. ^ "Mars' desert surface...". MGCM Press release. NASA. http://www-mgcm.arc.nasa.gov/mgcm/HTML/WEATHER/surface.html. Retrieved 2007-02-25.
102. ^ Kluger, Jeffrey (September 1, 1992). "Mars, in Earth's Image". Discover Magazine. http://discovermagazine.com/1992/sep/marsinearthsimag105. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
103. ^ Goodman, Jason C (September 22, 1997). "The Past, Present, and Possible Future of Martian Climate". MIT. http://www.mit.edu/people/goodmanj/terraforming/terraforming.html. Retrieved 2007-02-26.
104. ^ Philips, Tony (July 16, 2001). "Planet Gobbling Dust Storms". Science @ NASA. http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast16jul_1.htm. Retrieved 2006-06-07.
105. ^ a b "Mars 2009/2010". Students for the Exploration and Development of Space (SEDS). May 6, 2009. http://spider.seds.org/spider/Mars/mars2010.html. Retrieved 2007-12-28.
106. ^ "Mars' Orbital eccentricity over time". Solex. Universita' degli Studi di Napoli Federico II. 2003. http://main.chemistry.unina.it/~alvitagl/solex/MarsDist.html. Retrieved 2007-07-20.
107. ^ a b Meeus, Jean (March 2003). "When Was Mars Last This Close?". International Planetarium Society. http://www.ips-planetarium.org/planetarian/articles/whenmars.html. Retrieved 2008-01-18.
108. ^ Baalke, Ron (August 22, 2003). "Mars Makes Closest Approach In Nearly 60,000 Years". meteorite-list. http://www.mail-archive.com/meteorite-list@meteoritecentral.com/msg14044.html. Retrieved 2008-01-18.
109. ^ "Close Inspection for Phobos". ESA website. http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=31031. Retrieved 2006-06-13.
110. ^ "Ares Attendants: Deimos & Phobos". Greek Mythology. http://www.theoi.com/Olympios/AresAttendants.html. Retrieved 2006-06-13.
111. ^ Hunt, G. E.; Michael, W. H.; Pascu, D.; Veverka, J.; Wilkins, G. A.; Woolfson, M. (March 1978). "The Martian satellites - 100 years on". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, Quarterly Journal 19: 90–109. Bibcode: 1978QJRAS..19...90H.
112. ^ a b Arnett, Bill (November 20, 2004). "Phobos". nineplanets. http://www.nineplanets.org/phobos.html. Retrieved 2006-06-13.
113. ^ Ellis, Scott. "Geological History: Moons of Mars". CalSpace. Archived from the original on 2007-05-17. http://web.archive.org/web/20070517181817/http://calspace.ucsd.edu/Mars99/docs/library/science/geological_history/moons1.html. Retrieved 2007-08-02.
114. ^ Nowack, Robert L.. "Estimated Habitable Zone for the Solar System". Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences at Purdue University. http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~nowack/geos105/lect14-dir/lecture14_files/image022.jpg. Retrieved 2009-04-10.
115. ^ Briggs, Helen (February 15, 2008). "Early Mars 'too salty' for life". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7248062.stm. Retrieved 2008-02-16.
116. ^ Hannsson, Anders (1997). Mars and the Development of Life. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-96606-1.
117. ^ "New Analysis of Viking Mission Results Indicates Presence of Life on Mars". Physorg.com. January 7, 2007. http://www.physorg.com/news87401064.html. Retrieved 2007-03-02.
118. ^ "Phoenix Returns Treasure Trove for Science". NASA/JPL. June 6, 2008. http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/phoenix/news/phoenix-20080626.html. Retrieved 2008-06-27.
119. ^ Bluck, John (July 5, 2005). "NASA Field-Tests the First System Designed to Drill for Subsurface Martian Life". NASA. http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/research/exploringtheuniverse/marsdrill_prt.htm. Retrieved 2010-01-02.
120. ^ Golden, D. C.; et al. (May 2004). "Evidence for exclusively inorganic formation of magnetite in Martian meteorite ALH84001". American Mineralogist 89 (5-6): 681–695. http://ammin.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/89/5-6/681. Retrieved 2009-12-25.
121. ^ Krasnopolsky, Vladimir A.; Maillard, Jean-Pierre; Owen, Tobias C. (2004). "Detection of methane in the Martian atmosphere: evidence for life?". Icarus 172: 537–547. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2004.07.004.
122. ^ "Formaldehyde claim inflames Martian debate". Nature. February 25, 2005. doi:10.1038/news050221-15. http://www.nature.com/news/2005/050221/full/050221-15.html. Retrieved 2006-03-19.
123. ^ "Living in Space". Mitchell, Cary L.; Purdue University. The Universe. No. 307, season 2008-09.
124. ^ Dinerman, Taylor (September 27, 2004). "Is the Great Galactic Ghoul losing his appetite?". The space review. http://www.thespacereview.com/article/232/1. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
125. ^ "Mariner 9: Overview". NASA. http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Mariner_09.
126. ^ "Other Mars Missions". Journey through the galaxy. http://burro.astr.cwru.edu/stu/20th_far_mars.html. Retrieved 2006-06-13.
127. ^ Sagdeev, R. Z.; Zakharov, A. V. (October 19, 1989). "Brief history of the Phobos mission". Nature 341: 581–585. doi:10.1038/341581a0.
128. ^ "Mars Global Surveyor". CNN- Destination Mars. Archived from the original on April 15, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060415081709/http://www.cnn.com/TECH/9706/pathfinder/surveyor/. Retrieved 2006-06-13.
129. ^ "Mars Pulls Phoenix In". University of Arizona Phoenix mission Website. http://phoenix.lpl.arizona.edu/05_25_pr.php. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
130. ^ "Phoenix: The Search for Water". NASA website. http://www.nasa.gov/missions/solarsystem/phoenix_water.html. Retrieved 2007-03-03.
131. ^ "Frozen Water Confirmed on Mars". UANews.org. http://uanews.org/node/20276. Retrieved 2008-08-24.
132. ^ "NASA Mars Mission declared dead". BBC. November 10, 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7721032.stm. Retrieved 2008-11-10.
133. ^ "NASA's Mars Odyssey Shifting Orbit for Extended Mission". NASA. October 9, 2008. http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/odyssey/newsroom/pressreleases/20081009a.html. Retrieved 2008-11-15.
134. ^ Britt, Robert (March 14, 2003). "Odyssey Spacecraft Generates New Mars Mysteries". Space.com. http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/odyssey_update_030314.html. Retrieved 2006-06-13.
135. ^ Wardell, Jane (January 26, 2004). "Europe's Beagle 2 Mars Probe Stays Ominously Silent". Space.com. http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/beagle_update_040126.html. Retrieved 2006-06-13.
136. ^ a b Bertaux, Jean-Loup; et al. (June 9, 2005). "Discovery of an aurora on Mars". Nature Magazine. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v435/n7043/abs/nature03603.html. Retrieved 2006-06-13.
137. ^ "Mars Exploration Rovers- Science". MER website. NASA. http://marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov/science/. Retrieved 2006-06-13.
138. ^ "Photo shows avalanche on Mars". CNN. Archived from the original on April 19, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080419070652/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/TECH/space/03/03/mars.avalanche.ap/index.html. Retrieved 2008-03-04.
139. ^ Agle, D. C. (February 12, 2009). "NASA Spacecraft Falling For Mars". NASA/JPL. http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/features.cfm?feature=2031. Retrieved 2009-12-27.
140. ^ "Mars Science Laboratory". MSL website. NASA. http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/overview/. Retrieved 2007-03-03.
141. ^ "NASA Selects 'MAVEN' Mission to Study Mars Atmosphere". Nasa. http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mars/news/maven_20080915.html. Retrieved 2009-09-20.
142. ^ Rincon, Paul (November 10, 2006). "European Mars launch pushed back". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6133712.stm. Retrieved 2006-10-10.
143. ^ "Introduction to the MetNet Mars Mission". Finnish Meteorological Institute. http://www.ava.fmi.fi/metnet-portal/?sivu=mainpage. Retrieved 2008-08-28.
144. ^ a b "The MetNet Mars Precursor Mission". Finnish Meteorological Institute. http://www.ava.fmi.fi/metnet-portal/precursor/?sivu=launch. Retrieved 2008-08-28.
145. ^ Britt, Robert. "When do we get to Mars?". Space.com FAQ: Bush's New Space Vision. http://www.space.com/news/bush_plan_faq_040115.html#whenmars. Retrieved 2006-06-13.
146. ^ "NASA aims to put man on Mars by 2037". AFP. http://www.marsdaily.com/reports/NASA_aims_to_put_man_on_Mars_by_2037_999.html. (Bad link)
147. ^ "Liftoff for Aurora: Europe’s first steps to Mars, the Moon and beyond". October 11, 2002. http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Aurora/ESAONKTHN6D_0.html. Retrieved 2007-03-03.
148. ^ "The ESA-NASA ExoMars programme 2016–2018 – an overview". European Space Agency. December 12, 2009. http://exploration.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=46048. Retrieved 2009-12-30.
149. ^ "Mars Sample Return". European Space Agency. December 8, 2009. http://exploration.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=44995. Retrieved 2009-12-30.
150. ^ "The Mars Homestead Project – Arrive, Survive, & Thrive!". Marshome.org. http://www.marshome.org/. Retrieved 2009-09-20.
151. ^ "Aldrin: Mars Pioneers Should Not Return to Earth". Universe Today. http://www.universetoday.com/2008/10/23/aldrin-mars-pioneers-should-not-return-to-earth/. Retrieved 2009-09-20.
152. ^ "Deimos". Planetary Societies's Explore the Cosmos. http://www.planetary.org/explore/topics/mars/deimos.html. Retrieved 2006-06-13.
153. ^ Meeus, J.; Goffin, E. (April 1983). "Transits of Earth as seen from Mars". Journal of the British Astronomical Association 93 (3): 120–123. Bibcode: 1983JBAA...93..120M.
154. ^ Bell, J. F., III; et al. (July 7, 2005). "Solar eclipses of Phobos and Deimos observed from the surface of Mars". Nature 436: 55–57. doi:10.1038/nature03437.
155. ^ Staff (March 17, 2004). "Martian Moons Block Sun In Unique Eclipse Images From Another Planet". SpaceDaily. http://www.spacedaily.com/news/mars-mers-04zzzd.html. Retrieved 2010-02-13.
156. ^ Lloyd, John; John Mitchinson (2006). The QI Book of General Ignorance. Britain: Faber and Faber Limited. p. 102, 299. ISBN 978-0-571-24139-2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Book_of_General_Ignorance.
157. ^ Peck, Akkana. "Mars Observing FAQ". Shallow Sky. http://www.shallowsky.com/mars.html. Retrieved 2006-06-15.
158. ^ Zeilik, Michael (2002). Astronomy: the Evolving Universe (9th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 14. ISBN 0521800900.
159. ^ "Close Encounter: Mars at Opposition". NASA. November 3, 2005. http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2005/34/image/l. Retrieved 2010-03-19.
160. ^ Sheehan, William (February 2, 1997). "Appendix 1: Oppositions of Mars, 1901--2035". The Planet Mars: A History of Observation and Discovery. University of Arizona Press. http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/onlinebks/mars/appends.htm. Retrieved 2010-01-30.
161. ^ Rao, Joe (August 22, 2003). "NightSky Friday – Mars and Earth: The Top 10 Close Passes Since 3000 B.C.". Space.com. http://www.space.com/spacewatch/mars_10_closest_030822.html. Retrieved 2006-06-13.
162. ^ "Mars Spectacular". Snopes.com. Retrieved on 2010-07-26.
163. ^ Novakovic, B. (October 2008). "Senenmut: An Ancient Egyptian Astronomer". Publications of the Astronomical Observatory of Belgrade 85: 19–23. Bibcode: 2008POBeo..85...19N.
164. ^ North, John David (2008). Cosmos: an illustrated history of astronomy and cosmology. University of Chicago Press. pp. 48–52. ISBN 0226594416.
165. ^ Swerdlow, Noel M. (1998). The Babylonian theory of the planets. Princeton University Press. pp. 34–72. ISBN 0691011966. Periodicity and Variability of Synodic Phenomenon.
166. ^ Needham, Joseph; Ronan, Colin A. (1985). The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China: An Abridgement of Joseph Needham's Original Text. 2 (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 187. ISBN 0521315360.
167. ^ Poor, Charles Lane (1908). The solar system: a study of recent observations. 17. G. P. Putnam's sons. p. 193.
168. ^ Thompson, Richard (1997). Planetary Diameters in the Surya-Siddhanta. 11. pp. 193–200 [193–6]. http://www.scientificexploration.org/journal/jse_11_2_thompson.pdf. Retrieved 2010-03-13.
169. ^ Sachau, Eduard (2001). Alberuni's India: an account of the religion, philosophy, literature, geography, chronology, astronomy, customs, laws and astrology of India about A.D. 1030. Routledge. p. 68. ISBN 0415244986.
170. ^ Taton, Reni (2003). Reni Taton, Curtis Wilson and Michael Hoskin. ed. Planetary Astronomy from the Renaissance to the Rise of Astrophysics, Part A, Tycho Brahe to Newton. Cambridge University Press. p. 109. ISBN 0521542057.
171. ^ Hirshfeld, Alan (2001). Parallax: the race to measure the cosmos. Macmillan. pp. 60–61. ISBN 0716737116.
172. ^ Breyer, Stephen (March 1979). "Mutual Occultation of Planets". Sky and Telescope 57 (3): 220.
173. ^ Peters, W. T. (October 1984). "The Appearance of Venus and Mars in 1610". Journal of the History of Astronomy 15 (3): 211–214. Bibcode: 1984JHA....15..211P.
174. ^ Snyder, Dave (May 2001). "An Observational History of Mars". http://www.umich.edu/~lowbrows/reflections/2001/dsnyder.7.html. Retrieved 2007-02-26.
175. ^ a b Sagan, Carl (1980). Cosmos. New York, USA: Random House. p. 107. ISBN 0394502949.
176. ^ Basalla, George (2006). Civilized Life in the Universe: Scientists on Intelligent Extraterrestrials. Oxford University Press US. pp. 67–88. ISBN 0195171810. Percival Lowell: Champion of Canals.
177. ^ Maria, K.; Lane, D. (2005). "Geographers of Mars". Isis 96 (4): 477–506. doi:10.1086/498590. PMID 16536152.
178. ^ Perrotin, M. (1886). "Observations des canaux de Mars" (in French). Bulletin Astronomique, Serie I 3: 324–329. Bibcode: 1886BuAsI...3..324P.
179. ^ Zahnle, K. (2001). "Decline and fall of the Martian empire". Nature 412 (6843): 209–213. doi:10.1038/35084148. PMID 11449281.
180. ^ Salisbury, F. B. (1962). "Martian Biology". Science 136 (3510): 17–26. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0036-8075%2819620406%293%3A136%3A3510%3C17%3AMB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-R. Retrieved 2007-02-26.
181. ^ Ward, Peter Douglas; Brownlee, Donald (2000). Rare earth: why complex life is uncommon in the universe (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 253. ISBN 0387952896.
182. ^ Bond, Peter (2007). Distant worlds: milestones in planetary exploration. Springer. p. 119. ISBN 0387402128.
183. ^ "Percivel Lowell's Canals". http://prion.bchs.uh.edu/Mars/Percival_Lowell.htm. Retrieved 2007-03-01.
184. ^ Fergus, Charles (May 2004). "Mars Fever". Research/Penn State 24 (2). http://www.rps.psu.edu/0305/mars.html. Retrieved 2007-08-02.
185. ^ Tesla, Nikola (February 19, 1901). "Talking with the Planets". Collier's Weekly. http://earlyradiohistory.us/1901talk.htm. Retrieved 2007-05-04.
186. ^ Cheney, Margaret (1981). Tesla, man out of time. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-13-906859-1. OCLC 7672251.
187. ^ "Departure of Lord Kelvin". The New York Times: p. 29. May 11, 1902.
188. ^ a b Pickering, Edward Charles (January 16, 1901). "The Light Flash From Mars" (PDF). The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2007-05-20. http://nbgoku23.googlepages.com/marslight.pdf. Retrieved 2007-05-20.
189. ^ Fradin, Dennis Brindell (1999). Is There Life on Mars?. McElderry Books. p. 62. ISBN 0689820488.
190. ^ Lightman, Bernard V. (1997). Victorian Science in Context. University of Chicago Press. pp. 268–273. ISBN 0226481115.
191. ^ Lubertozzi, Alex; Holmsten, Brian (2003). The war of the worlds: Mars' invasion of earth, inciting panic and inspiring terror from H.G. Wells to Orson Welles and beyond. Sourcebooks, Inc.. pp. 3–31. ISBN 1570719853.
192. ^ Schwartz, Sanford (2009). C. S. Lewis on the Final Frontier: Science and the Supernatural in the Space Trilogy. Oxford University Press US. pp. 19–20. ISBN 019537472X.
193. ^ Buker, Derek M. (2002). The science fiction and fantasy readers' advisory: the librarian's guide to cyborgs, aliens, and sorcerers. ALA readers' advisory series. ALA Editions. p. 26. ISBN 0838908314.
194. ^ Darling, David. "Swift, Jonathan and the moons of Mars". http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/S/Swift.html. Retrieved 2007-03-01.
195. ^ Rabkin, Eric S. (2005). Mars: a tour of the human imagination. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 141–142. ISBN 0275987191.
196. ^ Miles, Kathy; Peters II, Charles F.. "Unmasking the Face". StarrySkies.com. http://starryskies.com/Artshtml/dln/5-98/mars.html. Retrieved 2007-03-01.
External links
* On Mars: Exploration of the Red Planet 1958–1978 from the NASA History Office.
* Mars Unearthed – Comparisons of terrains between Earth and Mars
* Be on Mars – Anaglyphs from the Mars Rovers (3D)
* Mars articles in Planetary Science Research Discoveries
* Geody Mars – World's search engine that supports NASA World Wind, Celestia, and other applications
* Mars Society – The Mars Society, an international organization dedicated to the study, exploration, and settlement of Mars.
* NASA/JPL OnMars WMS Server for Mars Data – Work as Google Earth client overlays
Media
* Audio - Cain/Gay (2007) Astronomy Cast Mars
* Computer Simulation of a flyby through Mariner Valley
* Movie of Mars at National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
* Flight Into Mariner Valley – NASA/JPL/Arizona State University 3D flythrough of Valles Marineris
* Mars Astronomy Cast episode #52, includes full transcript.
Cartographic resources
* Gazeteer of Planetary Nomenclature - Mars (USGS)
* PDS Map-a-planet
* Viking Photomap
* MOLA (topographic) map
* 3D maps of Mars in NASA World Wind
* Google Mars – Interactive image of Mars
* Ralph Aeschliman's Online Atlas of Mars
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/"
All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License
