Symphytum

Classification System: APG IV

Superregnum: Eukaryota
Regnum: Plantae
Cladus: Angiosperms
Cladus: Eudicots
Cladus: Core eudicots
Cladus: Asterids
Cladus: Lamiids
Ordo: Boraginales

Familia: Boraginaceae
Subfamilia: Boraginoideae
Tribus: Boragineae
Genus: Symphytum
Species: S. aintabicum – S. anatolicum – S. asperum – S. bornmuelleri – S. brachycalyx – S. bulbosum – S. carpaticum – S. caucasicum – S. circinale – S. cordatum – S. creticum – S. davisii – S. gussonei – S. hajastanum – S. ibericum – S. kurdicum – S. longisetum – S. officinale – S. orientale – S. ottomanum – S. podcumicum – S. pseudobulbosum – S. savvalense – S. sylvaticum – S. tauricum – S. tuberosum

Nothospecies: S. × bicknellii – S. × ferrariense – S. × foliosum – S. × hidcotense – S. × mosquense – S. × perringianum – S. × polonicum – S. × ullepitschii – S. × uplandicum – S. × wettsteinii
Name

Symphytum Tourn. ex L., Sp. Pl.: 136 (1753).

Typus: S. officinale L.

Synonyms

Consolida Riv. ex Ruppius, Fl. Jen., ed. 3: 8 (1745).
Procopiania Gușul., Bul. Fac. Sti. Cernauti 2: 434 (1928).
× Procopiphytum Pawl., Fragm. Florist. Geobot. 17: 50 (1971).

References
Primary references

Linnaeus, C. 1753. Species Plantarum. Tomus I: 136. Reference page.

Additional references

Bucknall, C. 1913. A Revision of the Genus Symphytum, Tourn. Journal of the Linnean Society of London, Botany 41: 491–556 [1].
Popov, M.G. 1953. Symphytum. Pp. 207-216 (English) in Komarov, V.L.†, Schischkin, B.K. & Bobrov, E.G. (eds.), Flora URSS (Flora Unionis Rerumpublicarum Sovieticarum Socaialisticarum) XIX. [Convolvulaceae – Verbenaceae]. xxiv + 752 pp., Academia Scientiarum URSS, Mosqua, Leningrad. DJVU Reference page.
Pawlowski, B. 1972. Symphytum. Pp. 103-106 in Tutin, T.G., Heywood, V.H., Burges, N.A., Moore, D.M., Valentine, D.H., Walters, S.M. & Webb, D.A. (eds.), Flora Europaea. Volume 3: Diapensiaceae to Myoporaceae. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (UK), xxix + 370 pp., ISBN 0-521-08489-X. Reference page.
Wickens, G.E. 1978. Symphytum. Pp. 378- 386 in Davis, P.H. (ed.), Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands. Vol. 6 (Campanulaceae to Scrophulariaceae). Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 825 pp., ISBN 0-85224-336-7. Reference page.
Tarıkahya-Hacıoğlu, B. & Erik, S. 2011. Phylogeny of Symphytum L. (Boraginaceae) with special emphasis on Turkish species. African Journal of Biotechnology 10(69): 15483-15493. DOI: 10.5897/AJB11.1094 Open access Reference page.

Links

Govaerts, R. et al. 2020. Symphytum in Kew Science Plants of the World online. The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the internet. Accessed: 2020 Sep 22. Reference page.
International Plant Names Index. 2020. Symphytum. Published online. Accessed: Sep 22 2020.
Tropicos.org 2020. Symphytum. Missouri Botanical Garden. Published on the internet. Accessed: 2020 Sep 22.
Farr, E.R. & Zijlstra, G. (eds.) 1996 onwards. Symphytum in Index Nominum Genericorum (Plantarum). Accessed: 2011 Sept 04.
Hassler, M. 2021. Symphytum. World Plants: Synonymic Checklists of the Vascular Plants of the World In: Roskovh, Y., Abucay, L., Orrell, T., Nicolson, D., Bailly, N., Kirk, P., Bourgoin, T., DeWalt, R.E., Decock, W., De Wever, A., Nieukerken, E. van, Zarucchi, J. & Penev, L., eds. 2021. Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life. Published on the internet. Accessed: 2021 January 3. Reference page.

Vernacular names
العربية: شاغة
azərbaycanca: Xəndəkotu
беларуская: Жывакост
català: Consolda
čeština: kostival
dansk: Kulsukker
Deutsch: Beinwell
English: Boneset, comfrey
español: Consuelda
eesti: Varemerohi
euskara: Zolda-belar
فارسی: هماور
suomi: Raunioyrtit
français: Consoude
Frysk: Skuorwoartel
Gaeilge: Meacan an chompair
hornjoserbsce: Kosćadło
magyar: Nadálytő
հայերեն: Քարխոտ
Ido: Konsoldo
italiano: Symphytum
ქართული: ლაშქარა
қазақша: Майтамыр
кыргызча: Окопник
lietuvių: Taukė
македонски: Гавез
Nederlands: Smeerwortel
norsk: Valurtslekta
ирон: Цъахгæр
polski: Żywokost
русский: Окопник
slovenčina: kostihoj
slovenščina: Gabez
svenska: Vallörter
українська: Живокіст

Symphytum is a genus of flowering plants in the borage family, Boraginaceae. There are up to 35 species,[1] known by the common name comfrey (pronounced /ˈkʌmfri/). Some species and hybrids, particularly S. officinale and S. × uplandicum, are used in gardening and herbal medicine. They are not to be confused with Andersonglossum virginianum, known as wild comfrey, another member of the borage family.[2]

Species

Species include:

Symphytum asperum – prickly comfrey, rough comfrey
Symphytum bulbosum – bulbous comfrey
Symphytum brachycalyx - Palestine comfrey
Symphytum caucasicum – Caucasian comfrey
Symphytum ibericum – creeping comfrey, Iberian comfrey[3]
Symphytum officinale – comfrey
Symphytum orientale – white comfrey
Symphytum tauricum – Crimean comfrey
Symphytum tuberosum – tuberous comfrey
Symphytum × uplandicum (S. asperum × S. officinale, synonym: S. peregrinum) – Russian comfrey, healing herb, blackwort, bruisewort, wallwort, gum plant

Russian comfrey (Symphytum × uplandicum)
Flowers of Russian comfrey
Cultivation

The Russian comfrey 'Bocking 14' cultivar was developed during the 1950s by Lawrence D Hills, the founder of the Henry Doubleday Research Association (the organic gardening organisation itself named after Henry Doubleday, who first introduced Russian comfrey into Britain in the nineteenth century) following trials at Bocking, Essex.[4]
Propagation

Bocking 14 is sterile, and therefore will not set seed (one of its advantages over other cultivars as it will not spread out of control), thus is propagated from root cuttings. The gardener can produce "offsets" from mature, strongly growing plants by driving a spade horizontally through the leaf clumps about 7 cm (2.8 in) below the soil surface. This removes the crown, which can then be split into pieces. The original plant will quickly recover, and each piece can be replanted with the growing points just below the soil surface, and will quickly grow into new plants. Offsets can also be purchased by mail order from specialist nurseries in order to initially build up a stock of plants.[5]
Phytochemistry, folk medicine, and toxicity

Folk medicine names for comfrey include knitbone, boneset, and the derivation of its Latin name Symphytum (from the Greek symphis, meaning growing together of bones, and phyton, a plant), referring to its ancient uses. Similarly, the common French name is consoude, meaning to weld together. The tradition in different cultures and languages suggest a common belief in its usefulness for mending bones.

Comfrey contains mixed phytochemicals in varying amounts, including allantoin, mucilage, saponins, tannins, pyrrolizidine alkaloids, inulin, and proteins, among others.[6] Pyrrolizidine alkaloids are responsible for comfreys production of hepatotoxicity.[7]Liver toxicity is associated with consuming this plant or its extracts.[6] In modern herbalism, comfrey is most commonly used topically.[6][8][9]

In 2001, the United States Food and Drug Administration issued a ban of comfrey products marketed for internal use, and a warning label for those intended for external use.[10][11] Comfrey is particularly contraindicated during pregnancy and lactation, in infants, and in people with liver, kidney, or vascular diseases.[6][12]
See also

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Ayurveda
Chinese herbology
Ethnobotany
Ethnomedicine
Herbal
Herbal medicine
List of plants used in herbalism
Traditional Chinese Medicine
Traditional medicine

References

Miranda, Kimberley (9 July 2010). "Symphytum". hortweek.com. Retrieved 23 April 2017.
"Cynoglossum virginianum". Natural Resources Conservation Service PLANTS Database. USDA. Retrieved 2018-11-20.
"Symphytum ibericum". rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 23 April 2017.
Alfrey, Paul (3 June 2016). "Comfrey – BELIEVE the HYPE!". Permaculture Research Institute. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
Teynor, Putnam, Doll, Kelling, Oelke, Undersander, and Oplinger. "Comfrey". Alternative Field Crops Manual. University of Wisconsin, Extension, Cooperative-Extension. Retrieved 25 March 2014.
"Comfrey". Drugs.com. 17 July 2017. Retrieved 22 May 2018.
Mei, Nan; Guo, Lei; Fu, Peter P.; Fuscoe, James C.; Luan, Yang; Chen, Tao (October 2010). "Metabolism, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of Comfrey". Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part B: Critical Reviews. 13 (7–8): 509–526. doi:10.1080/10937404.2010.509013. PMC 5894094. PMID 21170807.
Grant, G; Nolan, M; Ellis, N (July 1990). "A reappraisal of the Malaise Inventory". Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. 25 (4): 170–8. doi:10.1007/BF00782957 (inactive 31 October 2021). PMC 2399473. PMID 2399473.
Miller, Lucinda G. (9 November 1998). "Herbal Medicinals: Selected Clinical Considerations Focusing on Known or Potential Drug-Herb Interactions". Archives of Internal Medicine. 158 (20): 2200–2211. doi:10.1001/archinte.158.20.2200. PMID 9818800.
"FDA/CFSAN – FDA Advises Dietary Supplement Manufacturers to Remove Comfrey Products From the Market". Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved 2007-06-01.
Koll, R; Klingenburg, S (2002). "Therapeutische Eigenschaften und Verträglichkeit topischer Beinwellzubereitungen bei Prellungen, Zerrungen, Verstauchungen sowie bei schmerzhaften Muskel- und Gelenkbeschwerden: Ergebnisse einer Beobachtungsstudie an Patienten" [Therapeutic characteristance and tolerance of topical comfrey preparations. Results of an observational study of patients]. Fortschritte der Medizin (in German). 120 (1): 1–9. PMID 14518351.
Yeong, Mee Ling; Swinburn, Boyd; Kennedy, Mark; Nicholson, Gordon (March 1990). "Hepatic veno-occlusive disease associated with comfrey ingestion". Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 5 (2): 211–214. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1746.1990.tb01827.x. PMID 2103401. S2CID 42511497.